This research looks at the process of women’s empowerment in post- 1994 Rwanda, with special focus on twelve cooperatives working in Mayaga region and the way these cooperatives empower women, their households and the community at large. Traditional Rwandan society has been always bound by patriarchy which has not valued the reproductive roles of women as economically productive in their households and the society as a whole. On the one hand, this understanding was reversed in the post-1994 Rwanda by the commitment of the government to gender equality at the highest level of political leadership through progressive policies and legislation. On the other hand, in Mayaga region, cooperatives brought about socio-economic development and changed relationships of gender and power in a patriarchal post-conflict society. The findings from cooperatives in Mayaga region show that to prevent women from reaching their full potential is economic folly. If women are empowered, they can generate important development outcomes such as improved health, education, income levels and conflict resolution. The findings further indicate how women’s empowerment is determined by the livelihood strategies women adopt themselves to respond to their vulnerability, and by the ways in which they express their agency in making a living in a sustainable way, with the available community assets that they have access to (financial, social, human, natural and physical). This research highlights that the accessibility of the community assets used by women in Mayaga region and in Rwanda as a whole is also determined by policies, institutions and processes that are able to influence their livelihoods positively.

Georges Duby and Michelle Perrot’s work, Histoire des femmes en Occident, Antoine Prost and Gérard Vincent’s work A History of Private Life as well as Chantal Antier’s work Les Femmes dans la Grande Guerre and Carol Mann’s work Femmes dans la Guerre, show that women have been largely ignored in the annals written about the twentieth century. This period was one marked by two World Wars, which had an enormous impact on women, especially in terms of their roles in society. These events resulted in women moving from the home to the world of work. These writers acknowledge that women in the twentieth century were mostly excluded from history. In contrast to others who have written about this time, these writers consider women and their roles in society and how these roles have changed as a consequence of the historical events of the time. Marie-Paul Armand was a popular writer of French fiction. At first glance her novels seem to be enjoyable historical, romantic fiction for readers who enjoy sentimental love stories. However on closer examination one can see that she rigorously researched the period in which her novels are set. These novels reconstitute the reality of women’s lives during the twentieth century. In her first award-winning novel La poussière des corons, Armand depicted the life of her main character, Madeleine, through the various stages of a woman’s life from her birth at the turn of the century, early childhood, adolescence during the First World War until old age in the 1960s. This novel mirrors the life of a woman in working class French mining society from the beginning of the twentieth century until the fifties and sixties when Western women underwent an unprecedented metamorphosis of their role. These novels would appeal to a wider readership than works by Historians with the same subject matter.

This study investigated risk-taking behaviours among 244 first year students (Male=52 and Female=192). The risk-taking behaviours of the students were grouped into Risky and Violent Behaviour, Tobacco Use, Alcohol and Drug Use, Risky Sexual Behaviour and Unhealthy Dietary Behaviour subscales. Statistically significant correlations were found among all the risk-taking behaviour subscales other than Unhealthy Dietary Behaviours, which did not correlate with the other risky behaviours. Statistical significant sex differences were found regarding risk-taking behaviour that implicated males as higher risk-takers than females.

The rise of the Mau Mau secret society can be attributed to underlying political, social, and economic causes. Politically, it was caused by lack of training of Africans in democratic methods of government and lack of legitimate outlets for political activities. Socially, it was caused by the clash of the old and new civilizations in Kenya; the disruption of tribal institutions and authority; the inadequate educational facilities for Africans; and above all, the pronounced racial discrimination, both legal and customary, dominating society in the Colony. Economically, it was caused by land-hunger, urbanization, poverty and destitution of the African people. The Emergency legislation of October 20, 1952, was passed for the purpose of suppressing the Mau Mau Society and restoring law and order. By 1958, though law and order had been restored, most of the Emergency legislation was still in effect and though some attempts had been made to alleviate the underlying causes of the disturbances, fundamentally the situation had not changed. The main grievances of the African people have not been dealt with courageously, with the result that the present situation is full of potential danger. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

In 1986 there were nearly 2.7 million Canadians 65 years of age and over. During the next several decades, the number of elderly Canadians is expected to continue to grow more quickly than any other age group. The growth of the elderly population, in conjunction with their basic right to adequate, affordable housing, necessitates that planners recognize and attempt to satisfy the unique housing needs and desires of elderly Canadians. In order for planners to appropriately meet the housing needs and desires of current and future cohorts of elderly persons, they must strive for the creation of a continuum of housing options and living arrangements suitable for a diverse range of housing needs within each community. This thesis provides a strategy for the creation of a continuum of housing options and living arrangements for elderly persons in a small city: the City of Terrace in northern British Columbia. The process is divided into three phases: (1) an examination of a range of housing options and living arrangements encompassing independent, supported independent, and dependent living, (2) a profile of the City of Terrace which will identify the types and locations of existing housing and services for the elderly and clarify directions for future development, and (3) an analysis of the financial costs and the locational requirements of the housing options and living arrangements in order to determine which options are best suited to the present and future housing needs of elderly Terrace residents. The findings of this research indicate that there are a wide range of independent and dependent living housing options and living arrangements for elderly Terrace residents; however, there is a lack of supported independent housing options for seniors. Consequently, there is an emphasis on encouraging the development of supported independent housing options in the first five years of the ten year strategy. A relatively small percentage of the total population of the City of Terrace is 65 years of age and over. Therefore, in an attempt to offer a range of housing options for a small seniors' population in the City, many of the housing options that are recommended can be developed in single family detached dwellings. The benefits of developing these options in single family homes include the ability to make more efficient use of uncrowded single family homes, the ability to create and dissolve an option for a single household without affecting other households, and the ability to create small scale developments of group living arrangements in existing single family homes and neighbourhoods. The creation of a variety of options throughout the community on a smaller scale helps to ensure that there will be a range of housing options encompassing independent, supported independent, and dependent options without risking the viability of these options because of the limited numbers of seniors in the community. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The aim of this thesis is to describe, in a preliminary way, the nature of voluntary associations in a peasant community in the Philippines, Kabacan. This objective is discussed in the introductory chapter which also presents a general background on the Philippines. Chapter II discusses some aspects of the fieldwork, the problems the researcher faced in conducting research in his own culture, and a general description of the methodological procedures employed. Chapter III presents a description of the community studied, its recent history, growth, and development and some features of the social and economic life of the population. Chapter IV discusses and analyzes some aspects of the culture and social organization. This analysis is necessary as it sheds light on a broader understanding of the form and character that voluntary associations take and the functions they perform in the community. Chapter V is concerned with an analysis and description of the voluntary associations in the community studied. The analysis here is focused on providing answers to the following questions: Why do people join voluntary associations? What relationships maintain voluntary associations and what undermine them? What types of associations are found in the community? Chapter VI, finally, discusses the functions that voluntary associations serve in a peasant community like Kabacan. This analysis is based on the findings reported and described in Chapter V. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This study is an initial and exploratory venture toward examining organizational change as it applies to the field of social welfare in Greater Vancouver. Specifically the formulation for documenting change as outlined in the proposal of the Area Development Project of the Greater Vancouver Area was used in three separate case studies. The study has concerned itself with documenting the process of organizational change (both planned and unplanned), rather than analyzing the effect organizational change has had upon services and/or agencies. The first case study deals with three social actions initiated in 1964 by the Society of Women Only, a group of deserted women in the Vancouver Area. In each action process the organization was attempting to create change in governmental systems of a mutual support and social control nature. The change processes were documented from their inception but not to their conclusions. The structured organizational change documented in the second case study occurred in 1961. At that time two divisions of the Social Planning Section of the Community Chest and Councils of Greater Vancouver, the Groupwork and Recreation Division and the Family and Child Welfare Division were combined. The combined divisions became the Welfare and Recreation Council. The whole change process was documented from its inception in 1960 until the change was assessed by a special committee in January - March 1965. The third case study considers the documentation of organizational change being attempted in a geographic area known as Sunrise Park in the city of Vancouver. The purpose of this change process has been to formulate plans for action by the health, recreation, education and welfare agencies towards solving problems that exist or may exist as a result of the introduction of a large public housing project into the area. The case study deals with change process in its initial stages as the organizational change in the period under study was only just beginning. Each writer has concluded his case study by making a number of critical observations concerning the utility of the selected model for the development of both theory and practice in the field of community organization. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Myers, Robert James; Belknap, John Victor / Graduate

The central problem addressed in this thesis was formulated in 1965 and 1966 during participation in a study of administrative and other problems relating to the Indians of Canada. As it is now generalized, it has become a problem of conceptualization posed by population aggregates within any larger polity. Most studies of contemporary Indians in Canada and the United States employ as a major model and unit of analysis concepts such as society and community, in which spatial and social boundaries are treated as coterminous. In the first chapter of this thesis, I have discussed the limitations of these concepts when they are applied to smaller population aggregates such as Indian bands or reserve populations. In the second chapter, I have constructed an alternative framework in which the conceptual distinction between people and systems of social relationship is made a central feature. In this model the unit of analysis is an aggregation of people either spatially or socially distinct, for which I have used the term population in an attempt to avoid the unwanted connotations of such terms as "community". The population is regarded not as having a social system in the way that societies and communities are conceived, but as being a nexus of many systems of social relationship, some of which may be contained within its boundaries and some extending far beyond them. The population is thus envisaged as the context or social field within which individuals act. The systems of social relationship intersecting in a population are conceived of as existing as models in the minds of the actors and the observer, with each actor holding at least two: an ideal model of his social context as he would like it to be, and a concrete model of how he believes it actually to be. Actors make choices of behaviour within the framework of constraints and incentives provided by these models, their situation, and the choices of others. In Chapters III, IV, and V, three Indian Reserve populations are described and discussed in terms of this conceptual scheme, using data I collected in 1965 and 1966. The potential of the scheme for explaining and interpreting behaviour and events is demonstrated in Chapter VI, where the position of the bands in the larger polity is analysed, and interaction between Indians and government personnel, the formation of reserve power groups, factionalism, and the quality of reserve life are discussed as further tests of the scheme's utility. In Chapter VII, it is concluded that in spite of differences in organization, location, cultural heritage, and economic activity, the three reserve populations have many features in common, and that these features may be accounted for in terms of the particular interconnections of systems that they represent. It is further concluded that the framework of concepts developed in Chapter II provides an improved model for the description, analysis, and comparison of aggregations of people that do not fit the standard definitions of community and society. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This descriptive study of campers in Golden Ears, Kokanee Creek, Monck and Bamberton Provincial Parks in British Columbia is based upon 140 on-location personal interviews conducted in the summer of 1967. The clientele have been described in terms of their socio-economic characteristics. Further analysis of the data occurred in testing the hypothesis that there were no statistically significant differences at the five percent level when the variables of age, income, occupation, education and distance from home were compared with a variety of camper needs and preferences. This information may help various agencies concerned with the use of parks to plan educational programs for the park visitor. The study revealed that families were the main users of the four Provincial study parks. The head of the family unit was generally a man possessing some high school education and receiving an annual income of less than $10,000. Most of the respondents visited a succession of Provincial parks while on their camping trips. The tent, as in earlier times, remains the most common form of shelter used by campers. The appeal of a camping holiday was centered mainly on the change of life-style offered by this recreational form. However, campers having a non-professional work background also laid considerable stress on the health and social advantages of camping. The high regard of campers for the Provincial parks interpretation program was made evident by the high percentage of campers who favoured on-site instruction as a preferred means of gaining information about the outdoors. Further confirmation appeared in the expressed wish that some form of the program should be implemented in all of the study parks currently lacking this facility. Continuing education courses with camping content held considerable appeal for the respondents, particularly those under 29 years of age with some university training. / Education, Faculty of / Educational Studies (EDST), Department of / Graduate

In the first part of the thesis, historical analysis shows that agents of cultural contact - the trading company and mission churches - focussed the activities of native Eskimo and Indian peoples upon the Mackenzie Delta. Centrifugal forces exerted by whaling in the Beaufort Sea and the Klondike Gold Rush were short-lived and resulted in the more rapid acculturation of native peoples involved in them who eventually drifted back towards the Mackenzie Delta. The intensification of trapping after 1920 and the growth of a pattern of settlements confirmed the importance of the Mackenzie Delta in the ecological regimes of Eskimos, Indians and the white trappers who migrated there at this time, and favoured the emergence of a Delta Community. In the second part of the thesis, an objective hierarchical grouping procedure is used to identify characteristic groups of trappers in terms of the species they trap. Groups specializing in more distant species associated with each settlement virtually disappeared between 1931 and 1951 and the spring muskrat harvest in the Mackenzie Delta became the dominant activity of most trappers. In 1950, trapping camps were evenly distributed throughout the Mackenzie Delta and the take of muskrat generally greater in the northeast. After the building of the new planned settlement of Inuvik the numbers of trapping camps diminished and the regional trend of the muskrat harvest shifted as the takes in the vincinity [sic] of the new town decreased. For the mid-sixties, a grouping procedure used to dichotomize "serious" and "part-time" trappers shows that a large proportion of the latter maintained trapping camps. Analysis of employment in Inuvik also shows a divided commitment to land and town. High income and high status jobs were occupied predominantly by white transient workers since they required skills and levels of educational achievement possessed by few native people. Though native people of Metis origin showed some success in employment, most Eskimos and Indians occupied more menial jobs. A comparison of employment in government and non-government sectors indicates that native involvement in the latter was growing, many native people in both sectors shifted jobs frequently, or between jobs and land-based activities. The town economy like the land economy showed signs of adaptation to the dual allegiance felt by native people to land and town. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate