Researchers and k-12 practitioners have been struggling with inequity and diversity issues for the past four decades. These struggles have produced multiple philosophies, theoretical perspectives and educational approaches—each with strengths and limitations. The various approaches to addressing diversity indirectly and implicitly address, but have not managed, the systemic changes necessary for education to be socially just. Ideally, all diversity approaches should result in academic achievement and social change—the goals of social justice education. Past research has mainly focused on crisis intervention strategies or on meeting individually-based needs rather than on systemic practices and strategies at the school or district level. Toward this end, the purpose of this study was to explore how social justice goals are manifested in one school. The specific objectives were as follows: (1) Explore how the different members of the school community describe or define social justice. (2) Examine what current programs the participants believe support social justice-related goals. (3) Investigate current practices the participants believe to be socially just. This qualitative case study used interviews, document review and observations of administrators and teachers at the research site (Middle School). This study was designed to be exploratory in nature. Through the syntheses of the literature, I developed a tri-focal lens framework for social justice education which I use as an analytic tool. From the analysis, I offer a description of Middle School’s efforts to implement social justice goals. The findings of this study indicate that implementing social justice education theory in real contexts is a highly complex and evolutionary process, but not impossible. The purpose of this study never intended to establish a privileged binary of theory over practice, but rather I set out to explore the complexity of the intersections—the convergences and divergences of theory and practice. And, as is usually the case when moving between theory and practice, the study reveals the necessary trade offs and unintended consequences of well-intended decisions.

This research study has explored the kinds of thoughts that therapists report having had in response to their experiences with therapy failures. The central goal was to develop a model for organizing therapists' thoughts to form a basis for further investigations into therapists' conceptual processes for coping with and learning from therapy failures. The methodological approaches used in this study were designed to conform to a set of hermeneutic and social constructionist assumptions about the development and function of "meaning making," as it applies to both psychological research and the therapeutic relationship. Thus, the research methods replicated a social construction process, using a "community" of participants for all stages of data gathering and analyses. The application of Thought Listing and Multiple Sorting Procedures in combination with Cluster and Multidimensional Scaling Analyses yielded a three dimensional solution with which to organize these therapists' thoughts. Additional findings suggest that the ways in which therapists examine therapy failures is socially constructed and may function to preserve therapists' core beliefs. The three dimensional solution challenges the usefulness of an exclusively causal model for understanding therapists' reflections on failures.

The purpose of the study was to identify the most effective map scale to use in on initial math/map scale lesson to be taught in math class at the middle school level. Consideration was made to ensure that the scale lesson would be developmentally valid and consistent with regard to both the mathematics and social studies curriculums. The study was conducted at an urban middle school in selected grade 7 classes during June, 1988. The method of conducting the study reflected throughout the mathematical perspective on the scale issue. Four alternative map scales were compared and an additional fifth scale was examined for transfer value. I was hypothesized that the target scale, 1" = 400 miles, exactly divisible by 8 and 16, would lead to greater student success at the required task: finding distance between specified pairs of cities on a map of South America. The scale study, while examined from a mathematics perspective, was positioned within the broader context of global education. The math/map scale lesson was examined with regard to the discipline of geography within the social studies department. This map approach to teaching mathematical scale moved a math class problem from abstract to real. Gains were mathematical and geographical. There were gains in three areas: (1) mathematics, (2) geography, and (3) relating mathematics and geography. Major gains in completion of the task required as measured by points assigned for correct responses occurred overall for the four alternative map/scale classes. Although the methodology isolated scale and results showed progression for all groups with a slightly larger average point gain for students using one particular scale, that of the target map, there was not enough difference in progression between groups for the results to be within an acceptable level of significance. Perception/Reality Analysis of students' perceived and actual abilities to complete the designated task of finding map distance using a specified scale indicated the presence of ability and interest on the part of students for learning math/map scale skills.

This study of a school improvement project in a predominantly African-American junior high school examines the efficacy of a course on social dynamics, "Dynamics of Relationships." The study explores the historical and cultural factors (notably fictive kinship) which structure African-American life in the dominant White society. Given the traumatic physical and emotional changes that occur during adolescence, African-American adolescents are besieged with special challenges and problems identified with ethnic kinship. How these factors affect African-American adolescent school success is investigated. Data were gathered through ethnographic research procedure over a three-year period. Triangulation or multi-methods of participant observations, questionnaires and student interviews were utilized. The data from each method were analyzed and the student interviews afforded the participants opportunities to make recommendations for improvement and modifications needed for the social dynamics course, "Dynamics of Relationships." Immediate results from pre- and post-tests after the course was completed indicated no significant change in behavior or knowledge. The students were promoted to various high schools--African-American neighborhood schools, culturally diverse schools with special programs, and schools in neighboring jurisdictions. However, after a three-year period, the students' reports supported the hypothesis that the course on social dynamics positively influenced their social development and increased their self-esteem and self-concept. The students in the culturally diverse schools reported no greater concerns about their fictive kinship than their peers in African-American neighborhood schools and both groups expressed feelings of high esteem. The students in substantially different high schools (social and academic) provided an understanding that they had not been adversely affected in their self evaluation. The study discusses the implications of the scores which reveal gender variance: the females gained more knowledge during the course than did the male participants. Recommendations for further research are presented in which other researchers can initiate a case study that will address some of the analysis of this study.

The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of student teachers' prior school experiences on their learning to teach. Specifically, the two goals of the study were: (a) to describe student teachers' prior school experiences and, (b) to provide an intervention in the form of an opportunity to reflect on those experiences. The participants were social studies student teachers who planned to teach in the following semester. Six trainees were interviewed individually about their prior school experiences and the connections they saw with their role as a trainee. A support group was established in which the participants shared their experiences and in which specific topics were explored in greater depth. Finally, at the end of the support group meetings, the student teachers again were interviewed individually. Data were examined for indications of the influence of prior school experiences (a) on student teachers' beliefs about teaching, learning and education, and (b) on student teachers' beliefs about self worth and abilities. Within the latter category, the influence of schooling on the formation of trainees' gender identities was examined. The data provided strong support for the influence of prior school experience both on trainees' beliefs about teaching and on their beliefs about self worth. Oppression theory, including both gender relationships and the dominant/subordinate power relationship of teacher to student, was provided as a framework through which the participants could re-evaluate their school experiences. Reflecting on their earlier school experiences encouraged participants to be more conscious of the negative ways in which their development had been limited by their schooling. Post intervention interviews showed greater awareness and concern about the need to treat their own students in ways that would be fully respectful of students' identities and abilities.

Statement of problem. Mainstreaming requires communication and collaboration between regular classroom teachers and special education teachers. In communicating, these teachers bring preconceived perceptions/attitudes of one another with them. Attitudes are emotionally charged ideas that lend predictability to our personalities and help us adjust to our environment. The understanding of perceptions is a first step in helping groups to accept one another. What is the relationship between mainstreaming and the acceptance of special teachers by other faculty members? There is a dearth of research in the area of attitudes/acceptance of special teachers by other teachers. This exploratory study closely examines this "first step" in the mainstreaming process. Methodology. Two sets of surveys were developed which assessed the relationship between successful mainstreaming and faculty acceptance of special education teachers. Twenty-three teachers from four elementary schools completed these surveys. Correlational research methods were used to compare variables between the surveys. Findings. It was found that more positive social acceptance/relationships between regular teachers and special teachers were associated with: (1) More positive attitudes toward special children. (2) More positive feelings on the part of regular teachers about the method in which they were selected for mainstreaming. (3) Better preparation of regular teachers for mainstreaming. (4) Higher levels of communication between these two groups of teachers. (5) More positive attitudes toward special education. Regular teachers reported that although they felt positively about the way they were selected for mainstreaming, they had negative attitudes toward their special students. High visibility of special teachers was associated with more success for mainstreamed students, more social acceptance, and more openness toward special children. Regular teachers with more special education credits were more positive about mainstreaming. However, regular classroom teachers with "regular" education credits earned beyond their master's degree had more negative attitudes toward special children. Conclusions. The findings of this study raise some significant issues including negative attitudes toward special children, poor communication and social acceptance between special teachers and regular teachers, lack of preparation, and a feeling of uncomfortableness in teaching special children. A staff development project addressing these issues is presented.

This study is to explore the effective use of the five basic protocols for oral discussion and debate as articulated by the National Council for the Social Studies, (NCSS, 1988), as a basis for promoting cooperative learning in Social Studies for grades three-six. Social Studies is especially suited to cooperative learning because it develops skills and processes for cooperative problem solving and the social participation skills. Children engage in discussion of social issues in the classrooms and in so doing grasp fully their social meaning and complexity. And, it is in this setting that cooperative learning is especially appropriate, since discussion is a prime means of developing and teaching thinking and analytical skills. This study was conducted in two stages: (1) Sixteen administrative interviews; and, (2) Nonparticipatory direct observations of 786 children. During these observations, every child observed the following five basic protocols as articulated by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 1988). They are: (1) Giving one's ideas; (2) Listening to the ideas of others; (3) Planning one's work with the group; (4) Presenting the group project; and, (5) Discussing how the group worked. Moreover, these rules were adhered to during the classroom meetings and small groups. This author concludes that during the discussions and debates, these elementary school children were in fact demonstrating the six classifications of cognitive development according to Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Knowledge, comprehension, analysis, application, synthesis, and evaluation as well as cooperative problem solving and metacognition. Furthermore, in this post-Cold War era, our world is becoming a world of increasing democratic nations, therefore, this author's general conclusions that cooperative learning in the Social Studies is "dress rehearsal" at the elementary school level for the children's adult community activism.

Educational experts believe that utilizing primary sources opens new doors for students by allowing them to think like historians, which ultimately hones in on the purpose of developing critical thinking skills (Rodeheaver, 2009). Historians constantly question documents, events, and credentials in order to form their own opinions while using primary source documents (Drake, 2002). When students have the opportunity and freedom to question documents and events and form their own opinions, learning may be enhanced. This study examines the possible power of allowing students to explore primary documents and learn by doing during social studies instruction (Dewey, 1916). This thesis examines middle school students' perceptions of the effectiveness of using primary source documents in social studies. Through a survey given to general education students and to ESE students, this thesis explored eighth graders' perceptions of using primary sources. The survey included questions pertaining to the depth of knowledge on using primary sources as well as questions about how to determine a primary source from a secondary source and which of the two is more interesting and/or of more benefit to the learning process. By analyzing the responses to the survey given, the results found that a number of eighth graders thought that primary sources were more interesting, but preferred to lean from secondary sources. These findings do not necessarily agree with what educational experts and historians are suggesting, yet, they may offer insights into the educational implications for middle school teachers and provide opportunities for future research.

Ever since national legislation has become involved in the testing of our students, the face of social studies education in elementary school classrooms has changed drastically. With the passage of Goals 2000 in 1993, social studies instruction in elementary school classrooms has seen a steep decline in the time allotted. Also, the attitude of administrators and teachers in elementary schools has taken away the importance of social studies in the classroom. While social studies has seen a big change in the amount of time dedicated to instruction in the past 20 years, there is still hope for the important topics that are taught in elementary social studies classes. The results of 69 preservice elementary teachers who responded to my survey regarding time allotted to social studies education revealed that more than half had only observed social studies in the elementary classroom even once. In my research, I have concluded that teachers have been making up for time lost in social studies by adding it to the other core subjects taught throughout the day.

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