The global energy trilemma has brought attention to the importance of energy access, in particular to the 1.3 billion people worldwide without access to electricity. Vital for addressing poverty, improving people s quality of lives and meeting the Millennium Development Goals, small scale solar energy technologies are espoused as a solution to household energy needs in off-grid areas of the developing world. This thesis contributes to this critical research area through an investigation of energy governance issues in Nicaragua; specifically it focuses on the practices and experiences of off-grid solar energy technologies. The lived realities, voices and aspirations of energy users are largely absent in scholarly accounts of energy poverty, as such this thesis considers the implications of solar energy technologies from the perspective of those ultimately adopting, using, maintaining (and abandoning) them. Contributing to the burgeoning field of geographical and social science studies of energy, this thesis draws on ten months of field research in Nicaragua, which encompassed more than seventy qualitative interviews with stakeholders at multiple spatial scales. This included actors from international development agencies, national government, non-governmental organisations, the private sector, civil society, as well as households participating in three solar energy programmes. This was complemented by a large household survey of participants from one solar energy programme. Incorporating perspectives from the micro, meso and macro scales, this study presents a highly nuanced picture of the Nicaraguan energy landscape. The study concludes that interaction between global energy paradigm shifts and the domestic political economic context produced an electricity sector that was until recently - characterised by low distributional equity, deep consumer mistrust and dominated by fossil fuel-based electricity generation. The recent prioritisation of energy as a key developmental concern is demonstrated not only in strong government intervention, but also through growing international interest in solving Nicaragua s energy problem . A raft of programmes to green the electricity generating matrix, strengthen distribution activities and expand electricity access have emerged. Despite these encouraging developments, this research concludes that issues related to transparency, vested interests and the politicisation of electricity access appear to remain unresolved. The study traces the development of the off-grid solar energy market segment, revealing a complex architecture of institutions and actors working to promote and deploy solar energy technologies at scale. While this market initially developed in response to gaps in remote electrification plans, the research finds that recent grid expansion activities mean that the longer-term scope for small scale solar energy technologies is limited. However, solar energy remains an important feature of energy development assistance in Nicaragua, with further evidence in this study highlighting the amenability of solar energy to multiple institutional objectives and mandates whether climate change-related or poverty focused. The thesis concludes that the positions and expectations of key solar actors are often misaligned with the needs, wants and aspirations of off-grid energy users. Engagement with the narratives of people living in remote, off-grid areas reveals that the implications of solar energy programmes are not guaranteed, static, or necessarily captured by all households or indeed, all members of households. Users perceive that small scale solar energy technologies provide important soft benefits including increased levels of comfort, security, wellbeing and connectivity. However, the benefits are only captured for as long as the technology continues to work whether in organisational, financial, technical or social terms. The research concludes that there are numerous challenges facing solar energy interventions in Nicaragua, with some barriers connected to the situation of the user household, for instance, their continued ability to absorb the financial commitments associated with technology use. Other challenges link to the broader political economic context, where the highly complex, fragmented and politicised nature of (solar) electricity access has the potential to undermine interventions. This thesis argues that it is vital to examine solar energy interventions as embedded within broader political economic frameworks, but also to account for the intricacies of inter and intra-household dynamics. The study contributes new insights and empirical findings to debates on global energy governance, energy poverty, and the practices, politics and experiences of off-grid solar energy technologies in the Global South.

The Kyoto related mechanism – clean development mechanism (CDM) – can be used to generate certified emission reductions (CERs) for climate mitigating projects indeveloping countries. These credits provide an opportunity for additional project financing. This thesis has investigated the feasibility of using the CDM for off-grid solar home systems in order to electrify health centers in Uganda. The investigated scope includes two scenarios; one related to a particular project, ICT4MPOWER, and another one related to a national scenario of health center electrification. Two dimensions of feasibility have been targeted; legal prerequisites – various regulations that govern CDM projects – and value creating potential. The latter dimension has primarily focused on whether sufficient CDM-specific profit can be generated, but also looked at broader perspectives of value creation. Calculated break-even scenarios show that the expected scope of the ICT4MPOWER project is far too small to benefit from CDM. A national scenario improves the chances of generating a sufficient profit but would most likely still be too small. A project with broader national coverage would likely need to be arranged as a CDM program of activites (PoA). Such an arrangement has organizational benefits but does further worsen the financial outlook. Apart from the unfortunate value creating prospects, there are also obstacles related to legal prerequisites. To establish a baseline – the business as usual scenario which reflect the emission reduction potential of a project – may be difficult and somewhat ad-hoc. To demonstrate additionality – that the project would not have been carried out anyway – is another potential obstacle which applies to the PoA scenario. All in all, there are clear doubts that CDM would be a feasible solution for the investigated scenarios.

East Timor is rebuilding its stock of infrastructure after decades of underdevelopment and a wave of violent destruction in 1999. As part of this process the Government of East Timor aims to improve access to electricity from less than five percent of the population today to eighty percent by 2020. An important strategy to meeting this aim will be the use of solar home systems (SHS) in remote rural locations. To develop its policy for the deployment of SHS, the Government of East Timor must decide what size of SHS is optimal. This research investigates whether there is a relationship between SHS size and development. / The research adapts an evaluation approach developed by World Bank/UNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. This approach uses a combination of participatory and quantitative tools tailored to the East Timorese context through consultations with rural households about electrification and their use of SHS. Three SHS projects in East Timor were selected for evaluation, each of which had adopted a different sized SHS for their program. The smallest systems installed were 10 Wp single-lamp systems. The largest system was rated at 80 Wp and was supplied with four or six lamps. The third type of system was 40 Wp and provided three lamps / To assess the development impact of these different sizes of SHS, a set of Participatory Evaluation exercises were conducted with seventy-seven small groups of SHS users in twenty four rural communities. These exercises were supplemented with a Socio-economic Household Survey of 195 SHS users. The combined results of these evaluation processes enabled the three sizes of SHS to be compared for two types of benefits—assistance with carrying out important household tasks (i.e. ‘lighting-derived’ benefits) and attributes of SHS which were advantageous in comparison to use of non-electric lighting sources (i.e. ‘intrinsic’ benefits). Analysis of the research results showed that the small 10 Wp SHS provided much of the development impact of the larger systems. For lighting-derived benefits, there was little difference between the development impact of small and large systems. The larger systems provided greater benefit for domestic tasks undertaken in kitchen buildings, since the small and medium sized SHS did not provide lighting in these areas. For intrinsic benefits related to health and convenience, the small systems provided much the same benefits as larger systems. For financial benefits—considered by East Timorese SHS users to be the most important of the intrinsic benefits—smaller systems were found to offer slightly positive benefits due to their lower operating costs. Larger systems, however, were found to have a negative overall financial impact. / The research suggests three significant implications for the design of SHS programs in East Timor and comparable situations elsewhere: programs should focus on providing smaller systems rather than larger ones; systems should be designed to provide a light in the kitchen wherever possible to maximise the overall development impact; and SHS operating costs should be carefully matched to the incomes of rural householders to ensure that operation of the systems can be sustained by user households.

East Timor is rebuilding its stock of infrastructure after decades of underdevelopment and a wave of violent destruction in 1999. As part of this process the Government of East Timor aims to improve access to electricity from less than five percent of the population today to eighty percent by 2020. An important strategy to meeting this aim will be the use of solar home systems (SHS) in remote rural locations. To develop its policy for the deployment of SHS, the Government of East Timor must decide what size of SHS is optimal. This research investigates whether there is a relationship between SHS size and development. / The research adapts an evaluation approach developed by World Bank/UNDP Energy Sector Management Assistance Program. This approach uses a combination of participatory and quantitative tools tailored to the East Timorese context through consultations with rural households about electrification and their use of SHS. Three SHS projects in East Timor were selected for evaluation, each of which had adopted a different sized SHS for their program. The smallest systems installed were 10 Wp single-lamp systems. The largest system was rated at 80 Wp and was supplied with four or six lamps. The third type of system was 40 Wp and provided three lamps / To assess the development impact of these different sizes of SHS, a set of Participatory Evaluation exercises were conducted with seventy-seven small groups of SHS users in twenty four rural communities. These exercises were supplemented with a Socio-economic Household Survey of 195 SHS users. The combined results of these evaluation processes enabled the three sizes of SHS to be compared for two types of benefits—assistance with carrying out important household tasks (i.e. ‘lighting-derived’ benefits) and attributes of SHS which were advantageous in comparison to use of non-electric lighting sources (i.e. ‘intrinsic’ benefits). Analysis of the research results showed that the small 10 Wp SHS provided much of the development impact of the larger systems. For lighting-derived benefits, there was little difference between the development impact of small and large systems. The larger systems provided greater benefit for domestic tasks undertaken in kitchen buildings, since the small and medium sized SHS did not provide lighting in these areas. For intrinsic benefits related to health and convenience, the small systems provided much the same benefits as larger systems. For financial benefits—considered by East Timorese SHS users to be the most important of the intrinsic benefits—smaller systems were found to offer slightly positive benefits due to their lower operating costs. Larger systems, however, were found to have a negative overall financial impact. / The research suggests three significant implications for the design of SHS programs in East Timor and comparable situations elsewhere: programs should focus on providing smaller systems rather than larger ones; systems should be designed to provide a light in the kitchen wherever possible to maximise the overall development impact; and SHS operating costs should be carefully matched to the incomes of rural householders to ensure that operation of the systems can be sustained by user households.

Tanzania from the villagers' perspective. It was conducted in cooperation with the Swedish NGO Vi Agroforestry, who supported the field visits. Preparations were made in Sweden during Jan-March 2014, and the field study in Kyerwa, Kagera region was executed in April-May 2014. The study was mainly qualitative and the central data was received from 30 semi-structured interviews with villagers in Kyerwa district. For the design and analysis of the study, the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and a socio- technical perspective were used. The main drivers for SHSs were found to be improved economy, increased study opportunities for children and improved indoor environment from cutting out kerosene use. On the other hand, the main barrier for further spreading was the up-front cost of the SHS. Furthermore, though awareness of SHS is high, the lack of marketing of SHSs acts as another barrier. Most SHSs in the area show good technical performance, but lack of user maintenance might jeopardize this in the future. Lastly, villagers requested SHSs sold on a payment plan, as this would enable the investment for many.

A partir do processo de implantação dos sistemas fotovoltaicos SIGFI 13 na comunidade do Varadouro, isolada na floresta tropical do litoral sul do Estado de São Paulo, este trabalho identificou e caracterizou os principais entraves para difusão e adoção dos mesmos, com vistas ao desenvolvimento local e à melhoria da qualidade de vida. A fundamentação se baseia em referências teóricas sobre temas como comunidades tradicionais, exclusão social, atendimento de serviços públicos, dificuldade de implementação de projetos em comunidades isoladas e no relato da prática de experiências semelhantes em outros países. O método utilizado para pesquisa na comunidade foi o estudo de caso, que constou de revisões bibliográficas sobre trabalhos na região, visitas a campo e entrevistas com atores que trabalham na área. Os dados coletados foram analisados em uma abordagem voltada a compreender: a existência de barreiras no processo de implementação dos sistemas; os aspectos a considerar na superação dessas barreiras; e fatores positivos resultantes da implementação de tecnologia nessa comunidade tradicional. Os novos sistemas mostraram-se importantes e capazes de gerar sentimento de inclusão. Alguns usuários reclamam de não poder usar geladeira, sem, contudo, perder interesse pelo sistema disponível. A principal barreira diz respeito à falta de capacidade de organização dos moradores em prol de um objetivo comum e coletivo. Para a comunidade se desenvolver, não basta o acesso à energia. É preciso que sejam supridas suas necessidades básicas, tais como, saneamento básico, educação, saúde, transporte e acesso à comunicação, que são responsabilidade de Estado. Esta pesquisa conclui que o processo social de eletrificação rural através de tecnologia fotovoltaica é uma iniciativa que trás inovações que precisam ser adotadas e socializadas, e sua difusão deve levar em consideração a vivência coletiva dos moradores de cada comunidade. / Starting from the implementation process of the SIGFI 13 photovoltaic systems in the community of Varadouro, isolated in the rain forest in the Southern coast of São Paulo State, the objective of this work was to identify and characterize the main barriers to extending and adopting these systems, aiming at local development and life quality improvement. Foundation is grounded on theoretical references about themes such as traditional communities, social exclusion, public service assistance, project implementation difficulties in isolated communities, and on reports about similar practices in other countries. The method used was that of study of case, which consisted of bibliographic reviews on works in the region, field visits, and interviews with the people involved who work in the area. The data collected were analyzed according to an approach aiming at understanding: the existence of obstacles in the process of system implementation; the aspects to be considered when overcoming these barriers; and the positive factors arisen from the technology implementation in this traditional community. The new systems showed to be important and capable of generating a feeling of inclusion. Some users complain about not being able to use a refrigerator, without losing interest in the available system, though. The main hurdle concerns the locals lack of organization skills in favor of a collective and joint objective. The community development requires more than the access to energy itself. Their basic needs, such as sanitation, education, health, transport and access to communication which are the States responsibility -, must be provided. This research has come to the conclusion that the social process of rural electrification by photovoltaic technology is an initiative that brings up innovations which must be adopted and socialized, and its extension should take into account the collective locals life experience of each community.

A partir do processo de implantação dos sistemas fotovoltaicos SIGFI 13 na comunidade do Varadouro, isolada na floresta tropical do litoral sul do Estado de São Paulo, este trabalho identificou e caracterizou os principais entraves para difusão e adoção dos mesmos, com vistas ao desenvolvimento local e à melhoria da qualidade de vida. A fundamentação se baseia em referências teóricas sobre temas como comunidades tradicionais, exclusão social, atendimento de serviços públicos, dificuldade de implementação de projetos em comunidades isoladas e no relato da prática de experiências semelhantes em outros países. O método utilizado para pesquisa na comunidade foi o estudo de caso, que constou de revisões bibliográficas sobre trabalhos na região, visitas a campo e entrevistas com atores que trabalham na área. Os dados coletados foram analisados em uma abordagem voltada a compreender: a existência de barreiras no processo de implementação dos sistemas; os aspectos a considerar na superação dessas barreiras; e fatores positivos resultantes da implementação de tecnologia nessa comunidade tradicional. Os novos sistemas mostraram-se importantes e capazes de gerar sentimento de inclusão. Alguns usuários reclamam de não poder usar geladeira, sem, contudo, perder interesse pelo sistema disponível. A principal barreira diz respeito à falta de capacidade de organização dos moradores em prol de um objetivo comum e coletivo. Para a comunidade se desenvolver, não basta o acesso à energia. É preciso que sejam supridas suas necessidades básicas, tais como, saneamento básico, educação, saúde, transporte e acesso à comunicação, que são responsabilidade de Estado. Esta pesquisa conclui que o processo social de eletrificação rural através de tecnologia fotovoltaica é uma iniciativa que trás inovações que precisam ser adotadas e socializadas, e sua difusão deve levar em consideração a vivência coletiva dos moradores de cada comunidade. / Starting from the implementation process of the SIGFI 13 photovoltaic systems in the community of Varadouro, isolated in the rain forest in the Southern coast of São Paulo State, the objective of this work was to identify and characterize the main barriers to extending and adopting these systems, aiming at local development and life quality improvement. Foundation is grounded on theoretical references about themes such as traditional communities, social exclusion, public service assistance, project implementation difficulties in isolated communities, and on reports about similar practices in other countries. The method used was that of study of case, which consisted of bibliographic reviews on works in the region, field visits, and interviews with the people involved who work in the area. The data collected were analyzed according to an approach aiming at understanding: the existence of obstacles in the process of system implementation; the aspects to be considered when overcoming these barriers; and the positive factors arisen from the technology implementation in this traditional community. The new systems showed to be important and capable of generating a feeling of inclusion. Some users complain about not being able to use a refrigerator, without losing interest in the available system, though. The main hurdle concerns the locals lack of organization skills in favor of a collective and joint objective. The community development requires more than the access to energy itself. Their basic needs, such as sanitation, education, health, transport and access to communication which are the States responsibility -, must be provided. This research has come to the conclusion that the social process of rural electrification by photovoltaic technology is an initiative that brings up innovations which must be adopted and socialized, and its extension should take into account the collective locals life experience of each community.

Batteries account for 50% of the overall cost of solar home systems (SHS). The battery packs degrade over time and when they reach 70% state of health (SOH), the whole SHS is discarded. In the predominantly rural off-grid context, battery replacements are expensive and impractical. The customers are often dozens of km away from any sales point. Furthermore, recycling schemes are often limited in the developing world, meaning that old batteries are sometimes discarded in unsafe ways. As the market grows, the environmental impact of this will only get larger. Solaris Offgrid, a premier name in the Solar Offgrid industry, is innovating two solutions designed to tackle this issue; a smart multi-battery packmanager and an easy to recycle battery pack design with cell by cell management. The current study is based on a lossless cell balancing design, where in the charge and discharge cycles of each cell in the string are monitored and to efficiently avoid overcharge and over-discharge. Implementing this strategy reduces the degradation of these batteries which extends the battery life of SHS. A sensitivity analysis is performed to analyze the environmental benefit gained by implementing lossless cell balancing. The thesis provides a literature study on the different battery terminologies, types of batteries used in SHS and, various cell-balancing techniques used today. This is followed by the design of a lossless cell balancing technique with minimal losses. / Batterierna står för 50 % av den totala kostnaden för solcellsanläggningar (SHS). Batteripaketen försämras med tiden och när de når 70 % av sitt hälsotillstånd kasseras hela solcellssystemet. På den övervägande landsbygden utanför elnätet är det dyrt och opraktiskt att byta ut batterierna. Kunderna befinner sig ofta tiotals kilometer från varje försäljningsställe. Dessutom är återvinningssystemen ofta begränsade i utvecklingsländerna, vilket innebär att gamla batterier ibland kasseras på ett osäkert sätt. I takt med att marknaden växer kommer miljöeffekterna av detta att bli allt större. Solaris Offgrid, som är ett ledande företag inom industrin för solcellsanläggningar, utvecklar två lösningar för att lösa detta problem: en smart batteripackförvaltare för flera batterier och en lätt återvinningsbar batteripackkonstruktion med cellvis hantering. Den aktuella studien bygger på en “förlustfri” cellbalanseringskonstruktion, där laddnings- och urladdningscyklerna för varje cell i strängen övervakas och effektivt undviker överladdning och överladdning. Genom att tillämpa denna strategi minskas degraderingen av dessa batterier, vilket förlänger batteritiden för SHS. En känslighetsanalys utförs för att analysera den miljöfördel som uppnås genom att införa förlustfri cellbalansering. Avhandlingen innehåller en litteraturstudie om olika batteriterminologier, typer av batterier som används i SHS och olika tekniker för cellbalansering som används idag. Detta följs av utformningen av en teknik för förlustfricellbalansering med minimala förluster.