Master of Science / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / Steven Eckels / The current research presents the experimental investigation of heat transfer and flow characteristics of sonic multiphase flow in a converging-diverging nozzle. R134a and R123 are used in this study. Four different nozzle assemblies with two different throat sizes (2.43mm and 1.5 mm with 1° growth angle with the centerline of the nozzle in the diverging section) and two different heater lengths (200 mm and 125 mm) were tested. Each test section was an assembly of aluminum nozzle sections. The experimental facility design allowed controlling three variables: throat velocity, inlet temperature, back pressure saturation temperature. The analysis used to find the average heat transfer of the fluid to each nozzle section. This was achieved by measuring the nozzle wall temperature and fluid pressure in a steady state condition. Two methods for finding the average heat flux in sonic nozzle were included in the data analysis: infinite contact resistance and zero contact resistance between nozzle sections. The input variables ranges were 25 °C and 30 °C for inlet temperature and back pressure saturation temperatures, 1100-60,000 kg/m[superscript]2s for mass flux, and 1.4-700 kW/m[superscript]2 heat flux. The effect of the mass flux and heat flux on the average two-phase heat transfer coefficients was investigated. The flow quality, Mach number(M), and Nusselt number ratio ([phi]) were also calculated for each section of the nozzle. As the fluid flowed through the nozzle, the pressure of the liquid dropped below the inlet saturation pressure of the liquid due to sonic expansion in the nozzle. This temperature drop was significantly lower in the case of R134a than R123. The results showed that the two-phase heat transfer coefficients were above of 30000 W/m^2 K in the first 75 mm of the nozzle, and they decreased along the nozzle. The Mach number profile appeared similar to the temperature profile, and the fluid was in the sonic region as long as temperature of the fluid dropped in the nozzle. Nusselt number ratios were compared with the Mach numbers and showed that the Nusselt number ratio were increased in the sonic region. The results showed that the length of the sonic region was larger for R123 than for R134a, and the Mach numbers were higher for R123. The Nusselt ratios of R123 were low compared to the R134a cases, and the trend in the Nusselt ratios was notably different as well.

O meduloblastoma (MB) é o tumor maligno cerebral mais frequente em crianças e adolescentes. Trata-se de uma doença heterogênea sob o aspecto genético, sendo reconhecido ao menos 12 subgrupos genético-moleculares, com impacto na apresentação clínicopatológica. Pacientes do subgrupo SHH apresentam mutação somática em genes da via Hedgehog, incluindo PTCH1, SUFU, SMO e ativação dos genes GLI1 e GLI2. Mutações no gene TP53 também podem estar presentes, particularmente em crianças acima de 3 anos, e conferem um pior prognóstico. O trióxido de arsênio (ATO) possui ação inibitória sobre os genes da via SHH, mas pouco se sabe sobre sua ação no MB. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar os potenciais efeitos citotóxicos e radiossensibilizantes do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico grupo SHH (ONS-76: TP53-selvagem; DAOY: TP53-mutado c.725G>T e UW402, TP53-mutado c.464C>A). Foram comparadas as taxas de proliferação celular, clonogenicidade e apoptose nas linhagem de MB antes e após o tratamento com ATO. Também foi avaliada a clonogenicidade da associação droga e irradiação. Foram investigadas proteínas responsáveis pelo reparo dos danos causados ao DNA (Rad51 e Ku86) através de Western Blot. Foi realizada análise da expressão gênica relativa por QPCR e estudados genes que integram a via SHH, assim como efetores finais desta via de sinalização. A viabilidade celular foi monitorada nos tempos de 24 à 120 horas pelo ensaio de resazurina. A taxa de apoptose foi mensurada por meio de marcação com anexina e iodeto de propídio e avaliada por citometria de fluxo. Os ensaios foram realizados em triplicata e analisados por One Way e Two Way ANOVA, utilizando o pós-teste Bonferroni, e sendo considerados resultados significativos valores de p<0,05. Foi possível observar uma diminuição na viabilidade celular após tratamento com ATO nas três linhagens estudadas. Além disso, houve uma diminuição significativa na capacidade clonogênica. Observou-se também um aumento nas taxas de apoptose nas linhagens, sendo acima de 70% de morte celular para a linhagem DAOY. Foi observado que o tratamento com ATO radiossensibilizou a linhagem UW402, TP53-mutado. Não foi encontrada associação com proteínas de reparo no tempo e dose estudados. O estudo de expressões relativas dos genes estudados demonstrou inibição, principalmente nas linhagens de interesse DAOY e UW402 -(SHH TP53) mutado. Estes achados in vitro apontam para um efeito citotóxico do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico, podendo apresentar efeito radiossenssibilizante. O ATO deve ser melhor explorado como droga alvo para MB SHH+, em caráter experimental. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumor in children and adolescents. It is a heterogeneous disease under the genetic aspect, with at least 12 geneticmolecular subgroups being recognized, with impact on the clinical-pathological presentation. Patients of the SHH subgroup present somatic mutation in genes of the Hedgehog pathway, including PTCH1, SUFU, SMO and activation of the genes GLI1 and GLI2. Mutations in the TP53 gene may also be present, particularly in children over 3 years, and confer a worse prognosis. The arsenic trioxide (ATO) has an inhibitory action on SHH pathway genes, but little is known about its action. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential cytotoxic and radiosensitizing effects of ATO on the pediatric MB cells of SHH group (ONS-76: TP53- wild type; DAOY: TP53-mutated c.725GT and UW402 TP53-mutated c.464C>A). Cell proliferation, clonogenicity and apoptosis were compared in the MB strains following ATO treatment. The clonogenicity assay of ATO combined with irradiation was also evaluated. We investigated proteins responsible for repairing DNA damage and performed Western blotting of the Rad51 and Ku86 proteins. Gene expression analysis was performed using the real-time PCR. Selected genes integrating the SHH pathway as well as final effectors of signaling were also assesed. Cell viability was monitored at endpoints from 24 to 120h by the resazurin assay. The rate of apoptosis was measured by labeling with annexin and propidium iodide, as assessed by flow cytometry. The assays were performed in triplicate and analyzed by One Way and Two Way ANOVA, using the Bonferroni post-test, and being considered significant results a p value less than 0.05. It was possible to observe a decrease in cell viability in the three studied strains. In addition, there was a significant decrease in clonogenic capacity. There was also an increase in the apoptosis rates in the lineages, being above 70% of cell death for the DAOY lineage. It was found that the ATO treatment radiosensitized the UW402 strain - TP53-mutated. No association with time and dose of ATO and irradiation on the repair proteins was found. The study of the relative expressions of the studied genes demonstrated inhibition, mainly in the mutant line of interest DAOY and UW-402, a SHHTP53 mutated cell-line. These in vitro findings point to a cytotoxic effect of ATO on pediatric medulloblastoma lines, with a potential radiosensitizing effect. This study offers rationale for further assesment of ATO on SHH-MB, either alone or along with radiotherapy as a preclinical drug.

O meduloblastoma (MB) é o tumor maligno cerebral mais frequente em crianças e adolescentes. Trata-se de uma doença heterogênea sob o aspecto genético, sendo reconhecido ao menos 12 subgrupos genético-moleculares, com impacto na apresentação clínicopatológica. Pacientes do subgrupo SHH apresentam mutação somática em genes da via Hedgehog, incluindo PTCH1, SUFU, SMO e ativação dos genes GLI1 e GLI2. Mutações no gene TP53 também podem estar presentes, particularmente em crianças acima de 3 anos, e conferem um pior prognóstico. O trióxido de arsênio (ATO) possui ação inibitória sobre os genes da via SHH, mas pouco se sabe sobre sua ação no MB. O presente estudo objetivou avaliar os potenciais efeitos citotóxicos e radiossensibilizantes do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico grupo SHH (ONS-76: TP53-selvagem; DAOY: TP53-mutado c.725G>T e UW402, TP53-mutado c.464C>A). Foram comparadas as taxas de proliferação celular, clonogenicidade e apoptose nas linhagem de MB antes e após o tratamento com ATO. Também foi avaliada a clonogenicidade da associação droga e irradiação. Foram investigadas proteínas responsáveis pelo reparo dos danos causados ao DNA (Rad51 e Ku86) através de Western Blot. Foi realizada análise da expressão gênica relativa por QPCR e estudados genes que integram a via SHH, assim como efetores finais desta via de sinalização. A viabilidade celular foi monitorada nos tempos de 24 à 120 horas pelo ensaio de resazurina. A taxa de apoptose foi mensurada por meio de marcação com anexina e iodeto de propídio e avaliada por citometria de fluxo. Os ensaios foram realizados em triplicata e analisados por One Way e Two Way ANOVA, utilizando o pós-teste Bonferroni, e sendo considerados resultados significativos valores de p<0,05. Foi possível observar uma diminuição na viabilidade celular após tratamento com ATO nas três linhagens estudadas. Além disso, houve uma diminuição significativa na capacidade clonogênica. Observou-se também um aumento nas taxas de apoptose nas linhagens, sendo acima de 70% de morte celular para a linhagem DAOY. Foi observado que o tratamento com ATO radiossensibilizou a linhagem UW402, TP53-mutado. Não foi encontrada associação com proteínas de reparo no tempo e dose estudados. O estudo de expressões relativas dos genes estudados demonstrou inibição, principalmente nas linhagens de interesse DAOY e UW402 -(SHH TP53) mutado. Estes achados in vitro apontam para um efeito citotóxico do ATO sobre as linhagens de MB pediátrico, podendo apresentar efeito radiossenssibilizante. O ATO deve ser melhor explorado como droga alvo para MB SHH+, em caráter experimental. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common malignant brain tumor in children and adolescents. It is a heterogeneous disease under the genetic aspect, with at least 12 geneticmolecular subgroups being recognized, with impact on the clinical-pathological presentation. Patients of the SHH subgroup present somatic mutation in genes of the Hedgehog pathway, including PTCH1, SUFU, SMO and activation of the genes GLI1 and GLI2. Mutations in the TP53 gene may also be present, particularly in children over 3 years, and confer a worse prognosis. The arsenic trioxide (ATO) has an inhibitory action on SHH pathway genes, but little is known about its action. The present study aimed to evaluate the potential cytotoxic and radiosensitizing effects of ATO on the pediatric MB cells of SHH group (ONS-76: TP53- wild type; DAOY: TP53-mutated c.725GT and UW402 TP53-mutated c.464C>A). Cell proliferation, clonogenicity and apoptosis were compared in the MB strains following ATO treatment. The clonogenicity assay of ATO combined with irradiation was also evaluated. We investigated proteins responsible for repairing DNA damage and performed Western blotting of the Rad51 and Ku86 proteins. Gene expression analysis was performed using the real-time PCR. Selected genes integrating the SHH pathway as well as final effectors of signaling were also assesed. Cell viability was monitored at endpoints from 24 to 120h by the resazurin assay. The rate of apoptosis was measured by labeling with annexin and propidium iodide, as assessed by flow cytometry. The assays were performed in triplicate and analyzed by One Way and Two Way ANOVA, using the Bonferroni post-test, and being considered significant results a p value less than 0.05. It was possible to observe a decrease in cell viability in the three studied strains. In addition, there was a significant decrease in clonogenic capacity. There was also an increase in the apoptosis rates in the lineages, being above 70% of cell death for the DAOY lineage. It was found that the ATO treatment radiosensitized the UW402 strain - TP53-mutated. No association with time and dose of ATO and irradiation on the repair proteins was found. The study of the relative expressions of the studied genes demonstrated inhibition, mainly in the mutant line of interest DAOY and UW-402, a SHHTP53 mutated cell-line. These in vitro findings point to a cytotoxic effect of ATO on pediatric medulloblastoma lines, with a potential radiosensitizing effect. This study offers rationale for further assesment of ATO on SHH-MB, either alone or along with radiotherapy as a preclinical drug.

La voie de signalisation activée par la protéine Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) est connue pour son rôle majeur au cours de l’embryogenèse et en particulier dans la prolifération et la spécification cellulaire ou encore le guidage axonal au cours de l’établissement des structures du système nerveux. Depuis quelques années, ce morphogène a aussi été identifié comme un régulateur important de plusieurs processus physiologiques du cerveau adulte comme le maintien de la neurogenèse ou la régulation de l’activité électrique de certains neurones (Traiffort et al., 2010). La suractivation de la voie Shh dans un cerveau sain entraine une augmentation significative de la prolifération des cellules progénitrices des oligodendrocytes (OPCs), la source des oligodendrocytes matures, les cellules responsables de la formation des gaines de myéline (Loulier et al., 2006). Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai étudié le potentiel que représente l’activation de la voie Shh dans la régulation de ces progéniteurs dans un contexte de démyélinisation. Pour cela, j’ai utilisé une souris transgénique plp-GFP, chez laquelle la protéine fluorescente verte est exprimée par les cellules du lignage oligodendrocytaire. Après avoir caractérisé le profil d’expression de la GFP dans le cerveau mature de ces souris, j’ai mis au point un modèle de démyélinisation focale par injection stéréotaxique d’un détergent spécifique de la myéline, la lysolécithine (LPC). J’ai identifié les cellules du lignage oligodendrocytaire comme source directe de protéines Shh au sein de la lésion à un temps très précoce après l’injection de LPC. Les gènes cibles de la voie Shh sont aussi fortement induits dans cette population cellulaire à une période plus tardive, correspondant à la différenciation des OPCs en cellules matures. L’utilisation d’adénovirus codant soit pour Shh lui-même soit pour son antagoniste physiologique Hip, m’a permis de réaliser des expériences de gain et de perte de fonction et ainsi d’analyser comment la modulation de la voie Shh peut influencer sur le processus de régénération des oligodendrocytes suite à une lésion. La surexpression de Shh permet d’augmenter la prolifération des OPCs mais aussi d’accélérer leur différenciation, aboutissant à un nombre plus élevé d’oligodendrocytes matures plus précocement au cours du processus de remyélinisation. De plus, il est intéressant de constater que la densité des cellules astrocytaires et microgliales, notamment associées au processus inflammatoire, diminue dans la lésion chez les animaux ayant reçu l’adénovirus Shh comparés au animaux contrôles. A l’inverse, le blocage de la voie induit l’arrêt complet de la production de nouveaux oligodendrocytes. Au-delà de l’amélioration de notre compréhension de la physiologie et de la régulation du lignage oligodendrocytaire dans le cerveau adulte, l’ensemble de ce travail montre de quelle manière la voie Shh peut représenter une nouvelle piste dans la recherche de cibles thérapeutiques dans les affections de la myéline telles que la sclérose en plaques. / The Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling pathway is known for its role during embryogenesis and in particular for controlling cell proliferation and specification, as well as axon guidance. In recent years, this morphogen has also been identified as an important regulator of several physiological processes in the adult brain such as the maintenance of neurogenesis or the regulation of the electrophysiological propreties of mature neurons (Traiffort et al., 2010). Overactivation of the Shh pathway in a healthy brain causes a significant increase in the proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), the source of mature oligodendrocytes, the cells responsible for the formation of myelin sheaths (Loulier et al., 2006).In my thesis, I studied the effects of the Shh pathway activation on OPC regulation in the context of demyelination. To that purpose, I used a plp-GFP transgenic mouse, in which the green fluorescent protein (GFP) is expressed by cells belonging to the oligodendrocyte lineage. After characterization of the expression pattern of GFP in the mature brain of these mice, I developed a model of focal demyelination by stereotaxic injection of lysolecithin (LPC). I identified the oligodendrocyte lineage cells as a source of Shh protein within the lesion, soon after the LPC injection. Target genes of the Shh pathway are also strongly induced in this cell population, at a time corresponding to the differentiation of OPCs into mature cells. The use of adenoviral vectors encoding either Shh itself or its physiological antagonist Hip allowed me to conduct gain- and loss-of-function experiments. This way I could analyze how the modulation of Shh pathway may influence the regeneration ofoligodendrocytes after injury. Shh overexpression increases the survival and proliferation of OPCs but also accelerates their differentiation, resulting in a higher number of mature oligodendrocytes earlier during the remyelination process. In addition, the density of astrocytes and microglia, associated with the inflammatory process, is decreased in animalsreceiving the Shh adenoviral vector compared to control animals. Altogether these effects are associated with a reduction of the lesion. Conversely, blocking the pathway induced a complete arrest of new oligodendrocyte production. Besides the fundamental knowledge gained about the molecular mechanism involved in the oligodendroglial precursor cells survival, proliferation, differentiation and myelin repair in vivo, this project should also give valuable insights concerning the potential use of pharmacological modulators of Shh signaling as a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other myelin diseases.

This thesis aim to explain which part sound and music possess as a branding tool. We consider this to be of relevance since there is very limited reseach conducted on the subject. . To fulfill the purpose of this thesis we have focused on three main issues. Our ambition is to describe this subject from a marketing perspective with the brand in focus. The interview respondents consists of marketing experts, sound branding advertisers and actors from the Swedish telecom business. For this thesis we conducted seven interviews with a qualitative approach to gain a deeper understanding and a broad picture for the studied topic. In the final chapter we present our conclusions of the study. Because of the thesis qualitative method it is difficult to present a complete picture, therefore, we would like to refer to the last chapter for further reading.

The aim of our thesis is to examine how audio and music can be used for marketing purposes. To answer our purpose, we have conducted interviews with six respondents with experience and knowledge of using audio and music in marketing. The respondents came from three different specializations within the industry; producer, bureau and company. We have also analysed the respondents answers through theories such as content marketing, sensory marketing, musical fit and sonic branding. Our results show that knowledge of how audio and music affects us is of great importance to successfully use it in marketing. Further, our study indicates that audio and music tends to be used as a compliment rather than being in focus, which could risk that it instead becomes a deficient, rather than a winning concept. / Syftet med vårt examensarbete är att undersöka hur ljud och musik kan användas i marknadsföringssyfte. För att kunna besvara vårt syfte har vi intervjuat sex respondenter som har erfarenhet och kunskap relaterat till att använda ljud och musik i marknadsföring. Respondenterna representerar tre olika inriktningar inom branschen; producent, byrå och företag. Vi har analyserat respondenternas svar utifrån bl.a. teorier och begrepp som involverar content marketing, sinnesmarknadsföring, musical fit och sonic branding. Vårt resultat visar att kunskap om hur ljud och musik påverkar oss är av stor vikt för att lyckas använda det effektivt i marknadsföring. Vidare indikerar vår studie att ljud och musik tenderar att användas som ett komplement i marknadsföring snarare än att vara i fokus, vilket riskerar till att det istället blir bristande än ett vinnande koncept.

Au cours des dernières années, des progrès significatifs ont été réalisés dans la prévention des épisodes de démyélinisation qui surviennent au cours de la sclérose en plaques, mais beaucoup moins dans le domaine de la régénération de la myéline détruite. Notre équipe a précédemment démontré que la protéine Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) est un régulateur positif des progéniteurs oligodendrocytaires favorisant la réparation de la myéline dans un modèle de démyélinisation induite par injection focale de lysolécithine dans le corps calleux chez la souris. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires mis en jeu restent encore largement méconnus. Mon projet de thèse consiste à explorer le rôle d'un co-récepteur de Shh, Boc, une glycoprotéine reliée aux molécules d'adhésion cellulaire (CAM) et fortement induite à l’issue d’une démyélinisation. Dans un premier temps, nous avons focalisé nos investigations sur la caractérisation du mutant Boc knockout au cours de la myélinisation développementale. Nos résultats révèlent des activités région et temps spécifiques de Boc sur les mécanismes de prolifération et de maturation des progéniteurs oligodendrocytaires. De plus, les souris Boc knockout présentent un phénotype d’hypermyélinisation qui apparaît au cours des premières semaines post-natales et persiste à l’âge adulte.Dans un second temps, nous avons déterminé l'effet de l'absence de Boc sur les processus de démyélinisation et de réparation de la myéline. En utilisant le modèle d’injection focale de lysolécithine dans le corps calleux, nous avons démontré un retard dans la maturation des progéniteurs oligodendrocytaires et une réduction de la régression des lésions chez les souris dépourvues de Boc.Nos résultats indiquent ainsi un rôle positif de Boc dans le processus de régénération faisant suite à une démyélinisation. Par ailleurs, l’absence de Boc diminue la réaction gliale inflammatoire étroitement associée au mécanisme de régénération de la myéline. L’ensemble de nos résultats indique une activité différente du récepteur au cours des processus de myélinisation et de remyélinisation du système nerveux central. Ces données originales contribuent à la caractérisation d’une composante de la signalisation Hedgehog impliquée dans le processus régénératif associé aux pathologies démyélinisantes. Ces résultats seront importants à considérer dans le cadre de l’approche thérapeutique des maladies démyélinisantes. / During the last years, significant progress have been made in preventing demyelinating events that occur during multiple sclerosis, but much less in the field of regeneration of the lost myelin. Our team has previously demonstrated that the Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) protein is a positive regulator of oligodendrocyte progenitors enhancing myelin repair in a demyelination model relying on the focal injection of lysolecithin into the corpus callosum. However, the molecular mechanisms that are involved are still largely unknown. My thesis project was aimed at exploring the role of a co-receptor of Shh, Boc, a glycoprotein linked to the cell adhesion molecules (CAM) and strongly induced during myelin repair. First, we focused our investigations on the characterization of the Boc knockout mutant during developmental myelination. Our results reveal region and time specific activities for Boc in the mechanisms of proliferation and maturation of oligodendrocyte progenitors. In addition, Boc knockout mice exhibit hypermyelination that occurs in the firstpostnatal weeks and persists until adulthood In a second step, we determined the effect of the absence of Boc in the processes of demyelination and myelin repair. Using the model of focal injection of lysolecithin into the corpus callosum, we demonstrated a delay in oligodendrocyte maturation and a decrease in lesion regression in the Boc knockout mice. Thus, our results indicate a positive role for Boc in the regeneration process following demyelination.Furthermore, the absence of Boc decreases the inflammatory glial reaction closely associated with myelin repair. Altogether, our results indicate a different activity of the receptor during the processes of myelination and remyelination in the central nervous system. These original data contribute to the characterization of a component of the Hedgehog signaling pathway involved in the regenerative process associated with demyelinating pathologies.Those results will be important to consider in the context of the therapeutic approach of the demyelinating diseases.

Au cours des maladies démyélinisantes du système nerveux central (SNC), les gaines de myéline qui entourent les axones et contribuent à la rapidité de la conduction nerveuse, mais aussi les oligodendrocytes qui synthétisent la myéline sont détruits. C’est le cas dans la plus commune de ces pathologies, la sclérose en plaques, qui se caractérise par des épisodes inflammatoires et démyélinisants récurrents évoluant après quelques années vers une forme progressive secondaire. A l’heure actuelle, les traitements disponibles pour les patients sont essentiellement de type immunomodulateurs. Ces molécules sont efficaces pour réduire la fréquence des épisodes démyélinisants, mais elles sont dépourvues d’activité sur la forme progressive de la maladie. Juste avant que ne débute mon travail de thèse, les voies de signalisation respectivement induites par les protéines Hedgehog et les stéroïdes de type androgènes se sont révélées être des régulateurs positifs de la réparation de la myéline vraisemblablement en utilisant des mécanismes différents. A partir de ces découvertes, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que la modulation pharmacologique simultanée des deux voies pourrait être intéressante dans une perspective thérapeutique. En utilisant des cultures de cellules gliales mixtes ou en administrant ces modulateurs à des souriceaux nouveau-nés, nous avons d’abord montré l’existence d’une interaction fonctionnelle entre les deux voies au cours du développement physiologique de la myéline à la période post-natale précoce. De façon intéressante, le blocage de la signalisation Hedgehog est requis pour que les androgènes puissent jouer leur rôle dans le processus de myélinisation. Les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans la communication entre les deux voies sont apparemment indépendants de la régulation de la transcription du principal effecteur de la signalisation Hedgehog (Gli1), ainsi que de celle du récepteur nucléaire des androgènes (AR). Par ailleurs, l’administration de ces mêmes modulateurs à des animaux ayant subi une démyélinisation du SNC nous a permis de mettre en évidence un effet synergique des deux voies sur la régénération de la myéline, la résolution de l’inflammation et la récupération fonctionnelle. Ces résultats seront importants à considérer dans le contexte d’une nouvelle approche thérapeutique des maladies démyélinisantes. / During demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), the myelin sheaths that surround the axons and contribute to nervous conduction velocity, but also the oligodendrocytes that synthesize myelin are lost. This is particularly true in multiple sclerosis, the most common of those pathologies, which is characterized by recurrent inflammatory and demyelinating attacks evolving after several years into a secondary progressive form. Presently, the treatment of patients mostly relies on the use of immunomodulators, which are successful in decreasing the frequency of the attacks. However, these molecules lead to poor results in the progressive form of the disease. Just before the beginning of my PhD, the Hedgehog and androgen signaling pathways have been identified as positive regulators of myelin repair likely by using different mechanisms. On the basis of these findings, we hypothesized that a combination therapy using pharmacological modulators of each of these pathways could be interesting from a therapeutic point of view. By using primary mixed glial cell cultures and in vivo administration of the modulators to early postnatal mice, we have shown that the Hedgehog and androgen signaling pathways functionally interact during the physiological development of myelin at the early postnatal period. Importantly, the blockade of the Hedgehog signaling is required to allow androgen to play their role in the myelination process. The molecular mechanisms implicated in the pathway crosstalk do not involve the transcriptional regulation of the main effector of Hedgehog signaling (Gli1) or the nuclear androgen receptor (AR). Moreover, the same modulators administered into demyelinated animals led us to demonstrate a synergetic effect both on myelin repair, inflammation resolution and functional recovery. These results should be considered in the context of a novel therapeutic approach of demyelinating diseases.

Le médulloblastome est la plus fréquente des tumeurs pédiatriques malignes du cerveau et est divisé en quatre sous-groupes moléculaires. Le groupe Sonic Hedgehog (SHH), caractérisé par l’activation de la voie SHH, présente une surexpression du facteur de transcription basique hélice-boucle-hélice Atoh1. Atoh1 est essentiel pour le développement du cervelet et plus spécifiquement pour la formation des précurseurs des cellules granulaires, qui sont aussi la cellule d’origine du médulloblastome SHH. Dans le médulloblastome SHH, Atoh1 agit comme un facteur pro-tumoral en collaboration avec la voie SHH. De plus, l’inhibition des niveaux protéiques d’Atoh1 inhibe la prolifération tumorale in vitro et in vivo. Etant donnée l’importance de la protéine Atoh1 dans la formation du médulloblastome SHH, Atoh1 pourrait être une cible thérapeutique potentielle pour traiter le médulloblastome SHH. Cependant, les mécanismes de régulation d’Atoh1 sont encore mal connus.Les modifications post-traductionnelles sont connues pour réguler les niveaux protéiques dans les cellules. Plusieurs types de modifications régulent la dégradation protéique et elles incluent l’ubiquitination et la phosphorylation. Nous avons décidé de nous concentrer dans un premier temps sur le rôle potentiel de la phosphorylation d’Atoh1 sur sa fonction et régulation durant le développement du cervelet et la formation de médulloblastome.Par une analyse de spectrométrie de masse, nous avons identifié douze sites de phosphorylation sur la protéine Atoh1. Parmi ces douze sites, seulement deux, la sérine 328 (S328) et la sérine 339 (S339), sont importantes pour la stabilité et la fonction de la protéine. En effet, les deux mutants de phosphorylation spécifiques de ces deux sites, Atoh1-S328A et Atoh1-S339A, ont une demi-vie plus longue ainsi qu’une activité transcriptionnelle augmentée dans les précurseurs des cellules granulaires par rapport à la forme sauvage d’Atoh1. Nous avons ensuite réalisé une purification d’affinité en tandem différentielle suivie par une analyse par la technologie d’identification protéique multidimensionnelle (MudPIT) pour définir les partenaires phospho-spécifiques d’Atoh1. Nous avons découvert que l’ubiquitine ligase E3 Huwe1 est responsable de la dégradation d’Atoh1 de manière phospho-dépendante dans les progéniteurs des cellules granulaires. Nous avons aussi montré que SHH protège Atoh1 de la dégradation médiée par Huwe1 par l’intermédiaire des phosphatases de la famille des PP2A. De manière importante, ce mécanisme de régulation d’Atoh1 est nécessaire au bon développement du cervelet. De plus, dans le contexte tumoral, un faible niveau d’ARNm d’HUWE1 est associé à une mauvaise survie chez les patients ayant un medulloblastome SHH.Au vu de ces résultats, nous souhaitons étudier plus en détail le rôle de la phosphorylation d’Atoh1 ainsi que la contribution de ce nouveau mécanisme dans le médulloblastome. Nous souhaiterions ainsi exploiter nos résultats pour développer de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques dans le médulloblastome SHH. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is the most common pediatric malignant brain tumor and is divided in four subgroups by gene profiling. The well-known subgroup harboring an activation of the Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) pathway shows an upregulation of the proneural basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor Atoh1. Atoh1 is essential for cerebellum development and more specifically for the formation of the granule neuronal progenitors (GNPs), which are the cells of origin of SHH induced MB. In tumoral context, Atoh1 acts as a pro-tumor factor in cooperation with SHH pathway. In addition, the inhibition of Atoh1 protein level prevents MB proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Thus, given the strong implication of Atoh1 protein in MB formation, Atoh1 seems to be a potential therapeutic target to treat SHH MB. However, up to date, mechanisms underlying its regulation remain to be elucidated. Posttranslational modifications are known to regulate protein levels in cells. Several modifications regulate protein turnover including the two most prominent, ubiquitination and phosphorylation. We decided to focus primarily our study on a potential role of Atoh1’s phosphorylation on its function and regulation both during cerebellar development and MB genesis. Using mass spectrometry analysis, we identified twelve phosphorylation sites on Atoh1 protein. Among them, only two, the serine 328 (S328) and serine 339 (S339), were critical for Atoh1 stability and function. The two single phospho-deficient mutants, Atoh1-S328A and Atoh1-S339A, displayed a longer half-life and increased transcriptional activity in granule neuron progenitors when compared to the wild-type form of Atoh1. Next, we employed differential tandem affinity purification followed by Multidimensional Protein Identification Technology (MudPIT) analysis to define Atoh1 phospho-specific partners. We uncovered that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Huwe1 is responsible for Atoh1 degradation in a phospho-dependent manner in granule neuron progenitors. We also discovered that SHH protects Atoh1 against its degradation mediated by Huwe1 through the phosphatases of PP2A family. Importantly, this machinery is required for proper cerebellar development and we highlighted that low levels of HUWE1 are associated with a poor prognosis in patient harboring a SHH medulloblastoma.Given this data, we wish to dissect the role of Atoh1 phosphorylation, and the contribution of this new pathway in MB. We anticipate exploiting our findings to develop new therapeutic strategies in SHH MB.

Le médulloblastome (MB), une tumeur formée à partir du cervelet en développement, est l’un des cancers pédiatriques malins les plus fréquents. Des profils d’expression géniques ont montré l’existence de quatre groupes distincts de MB qui présentent des profils moléculaires et des pronostics différents. Parmi ces groupes, l’un d’entre eux est caractérisé par une activation de la voie de signalisation Sonic Hedgehog (SHH). Ce groupe de MB provient des précurseurs de neurones en grain lors du développement cérébelleux. Les traitements actuels comprennent la chirurgie, la chimiothérapie ainsi que la radiothérapie, ce qui a pour effet d’altérer les capacités cognitives et sociales des survivants. Ainsi, des efforts considérables ont été mis en œuvre dans le but de trouver des cibles thérapeutiques afin de bloquer spécifiquement les mécanismes tumorigéniques sans affecter le développement normal. De récentes analyses à grande échelle ont révélé le rôle crucial de mécanismes épigénétiques, et en particulier dans le groupe SHH, dans lequel la perte de fonction d’un certain nombre de modificateurs chromatiniens a été identifiée. Ainsi, l'objectif principal de ma thèse est d'étudier l'implication de potentiels candidats modificateur chromatinien, à la fois au cours du développement cérébelleux et lors du MB SHH. Nous avons concentré notre étude sur plusieurs modificateurs de la chromatine qui ont été trouvés mutés dans les MB SHH humains. Nous avons commencé l’étude avec trois modificateurs chromatiniens sélectionnés selon (i) leur impact sur la survie, (ii) leur expression au cours du développement du cervelet, (iii) leur expression dans les MB SHH humains et nous sommes finalement concentré sur un.Afin d'étudier ce candidat, un objectif important de ma thèse a été de développer des outils fiables. Dans ce contexte, nous avons développé des modèles de souris knock-out conditionnelles et le système CRISPR-cas9 dans le développement cérébelleux postnatal afin d'étudier l'impact de la perte du candidat à la fois dans le développement du cervelet et dans le MB SHH. Ensuite, nous nous sommes intéressés aux mécanismes moléculaires contrôlés par ce modificateur de la chromatine. Plus précisément, nous avons défini (i) l’interactome, et (ii) des cibles transcriptionnelles spécifiques qui nous ont aidé à comprendre comment une protéine impliquée dans la modification de la chromatine peut favoriser l’état tumoral. En conclusion, ces travaux permettent de mettre en évidence comment la perte de la fonction de modificateur chromatinien spécifique peut différemment affecter le destin cellulaire dans le développement normal cérébelleux et dans le MB SHH et soulève la question d’une prise en charge plus personnalisée des patients atteints de MB SHH. / Medulloblastoma (MB), a tumor arising from the developing cerebellum, is one of the most common malignant pediatric brain tumors. Gene expression profiling showed the existence of four groups of MB with distinct molecular profiles and patient outcomes. Among these groups, one of them is associated with an activation of the Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) pathway.This specific group is thought to arise from cerebellar Granule Neuron Progenitors (GNPs) during cerebellar development. The actual treatment is heavy and consists of surgery, chemotherapy as well as radiotherapy impairing social and cognitive ability of survivors. Thus, considerable effort has been made in order to find drug targets that would specifically block tumorigenic mechanisms without affecting normal development.Recent large scale analysis revealed the crucial role of epigenetic mechanisms, and especially in the SHH group of MB in which loss of function mutation of several chromatin modifiers has been identified. Thus, the main goal of my PhD is to study the involvement of potential candidate chromatin modifiers both during cerebellar development and in SHH MB.We focused our study on several chromatin modifiers that were found mutated in human SHH MB. We began to study three chromatin modifiers that were selected according to (i) their impact on survival, (ii) their expression during cerebellar development, (iii) their expression in human SHH MB and finally we selected one for further functional validation.In order to study this candidate, one important goal of my PhD has been to develop reliable tools. In that context, we developed conditional knock-out mice models and the CRISPR-Cas9 system in postnatal cerebellar development in order to study the impact of the loss of this chromatin modifier both in cerebellar development and SHH MB initiation. Then, we investigated the molecular mechanisms controlled by this chromatin modifier. In particular, we defined (i) the interactome, and (ii) specific target genes that helped us understanding how a protein implicated in chromatin modification can favor tumors. In conclusion, this work provides insights into how the loss of function of a specific chromatin modifier can differentially affect cell fate in the context of normal cerebellar development and in SHH MB, stressing the question of a more personalized patient care.