This dissertation argues that in the 1990s and beyond, the character and functions of regions and regionalism have experienced a major transformation. This requires a reconceptualisation of regions and regionalism that transcends state-centrism. The argument here is that the definition of regions and regionalism needs to recognise that other actors also participate in the construction of regions and the practise of regionalism. Up to now, however, theories of integration incompletely deal with outcomes appropriate to developing countries, states and regions. In the context where people remain vulnerable to top-down forms of regionalism driven by the forces of globalisation, this calls for a new approach in the analytical study of regionalism in a transnational context. The contention is that new regionalism, and its variant, developmental regionalism pay attention to the role those organised civil society actors and those marginalised by both globalisation and regionalisation play in promoting regionalism in a transnational context. Historically, state-centric regionalism in southern Africa was not aimed at achieving developmental objectives. In the case of SACU, the argument is that South Africa used its economic strength in a hegemonial way. To counter-act apartheid South Africa’s economic hegemony, SADCC was formed. SADCC achieved limited success in the fields of infrastructural development and in attracting donor aid. The end of the Cold War and the downfall of apartheid compelled these organisations to recast their objectives and purpose. For SACU this meant changing from an organisation dominated by South Africa to a fully-fledged inter-state one. Disconcertedly, however, about the reforms undertook by SACU, is that the disposition of member states remain important in determining the content and scope of regionalism. SADC, on the other hand, has also not sufficiently reform itself to achieve the ambitious goals it set-out for itself. Moreover, while SADC has since its inception in 1992 set-out to involve non-state actors in its regional integration efforts, limited institutional reform in 2000 and beyond, and elites at the forefront of institutional restructuring make it difficult for non-state actors to contribute to sustainable regional integration. In conclusion, this dissertation maintains that sustainable regionalist orders are best built by recognising that beyond the geometry of state-sovereignty, civil society organisations with a regional focus and the ordinary people of the region also contribute to regioness and as such to the re-conceptualisation of regional community in southern Africa.

This study discusses the case of modernising the Southern African Development Community (SADC) regional payments system facilitated by the SADC Payment System Project. The long-term objective is to have harmonised cross-border and inter-bank settlement systems to facilitate the economic activity such as supporting the flow of trade within the SADC region. The SADC Payment System Project purports to have adopted a strategic management process to achieve its mandate. The modernisation process is in line with the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP). The aim of the RISDP is to provide strategic direction with respect to various SADC programmes and activities and to align the strategic objectives and priorities of SADC with the policies and strategies for achieving its long-term goals. The concept of payment, clearing and settlement system is explained to provide the context within which the national payment system fits in the economic system and its role towards economic development. The first objective of the study is to discuss the strategic management process. The objective of the discussion is to reflect how the strategic management theoretical constructs were translated into practice. The second objective of the study is to explore the environmental and country internal factors that are likely to impact on and delay the fully harmonised regional cross-border and inter-bank settlement systems. Although not exhaustive, the identified factors include; - The structural arrangements of country- specific teams that support the modernisation initiatives, - The availability of skills and capacity to harness the implemented systems within each member country in the SADC region. iii - The influence of foreign fund donors, as a result of a possible duplication of efforts, - The repair state of power supply and communication networks, - The supporting legal and regulatory regimes, - The forms of economic systems, - The influence and the extent of trade flows with the SADC region, and - The resilience banking networks in the facilitation of financial information flows within each member country and externally (internationally). The target population of central bank officials who also take an active role in the modernisation of SADC regional payments systems were requested to provide feedback on the prepared questionnaire to address the above factors. The responses provided are summarised in Chapter 5. It was clear from the responses that the identified factors appeared to pose little challenge for respective member countries. However, additional comments by respondents indicated that there is still a lot of groundwork to be covered. There was an evidence of the need for on-going training in payment systems and to improve communication networks and power supply within each member country, especially on the remote country areas/rural areas. Some members also hinted a warning on developing systems, which would have a potential to become white elephants if other sectors are not developed in parallel to the regional payment systems. / Graduate School of Business Leadership / M.B.L.

This study discusses the case of modernising the Southern African Development Community (SADC) regional payments system facilitated by the SADC Payment System Project. The long-term objective is to have harmonised cross-border and inter-bank settlement systems to facilitate the economic activity such as supporting the flow of trade within the SADC region. The SADC Payment System Project purports to have adopted a strategic management process to achieve its mandate. The modernisation process is in line with the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP). The aim of the RISDP is to provide strategic direction with respect to various SADC programmes and activities and to align the strategic objectives and priorities of SADC with the policies and strategies for achieving its long-term goals. The concept of payment, clearing and settlement system is explained to provide the context within which the national payment system fits in the economic system and its role towards economic development. The first objective of the study is to discuss the strategic management process. The objective of the discussion is to reflect how the strategic management theoretical constructs were translated into practice. The second objective of the study is to explore the environmental and country internal factors that are likely to impact on and delay the fully harmonised regional cross-border and inter-bank settlement systems. Although not exhaustive, the identified factors include; - The structural arrangements of country- specific teams that support the modernisation initiatives, - The availability of skills and capacity to harness the implemented systems within each member country in the SADC region. iii - The influence of foreign fund donors, as a result of a possible duplication of efforts, - The repair state of power supply and communication networks, - The supporting legal and regulatory regimes, - The forms of economic systems, - The influence and the extent of trade flows with the SADC region, and - The resilience banking networks in the facilitation of financial information flows within each member country and externally (internationally). The target population of central bank officials who also take an active role in the modernisation of SADC regional payments systems were requested to provide feedback on the prepared questionnaire to address the above factors. The responses provided are summarised in Chapter 5. It was clear from the responses that the identified factors appeared to pose little challenge for respective member countries. However, additional comments by respondents indicated that there is still a lot of groundwork to be covered. There was an evidence of the need for on-going training in payment systems and to improve communication networks and power supply within each member country, especially on the remote country areas/rural areas. Some members also hinted a warning on developing systems, which would have a potential to become white elephants if other sectors are not developed in parallel to the regional payment systems. / Graduate School of Business Leadership / M.B.L.

The study highlights the significance of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to the Southern African Development Community (SADC) economies. The first objective focuses on analysing the SADC investment policies pertaining to FDI. FDI instruments available at the regional and national levels are analysed. The study takes an in-depth look at the various activities by Investment Promotion Agencies (IPAs) currently existing for SADC member states (MS). The existing policy instruments are key in attracting FDI and the policy architecture will largely determine the extent to which FDI will flow to different countries. The second objective focuses on reconciling the evidence on the determinants and impact of FDI in the SADC region. Through a systematic literature review, various literature reports pertaining to FDI have been analysed. Journal articles were collected from the UNISA library by means of a standard database search criterion through Scopus, Web of Science and EconLit search engines ranging from 1960 to 2019. The database was built based on known published and unpublished empirical papers for FDI in SADC. Out of the 554 journals investigated, 346 were found to be relevant to the study, with 114 journal articles contributing to the qualitative study. Through its quality assessment, descriptive statistics and qualitative synthesis provided a summary of the samples and measures utilized in a study through the measures of central tendency (mean and median) and dispersion - how spread out the data is (standard deviation). The results showed a higher mean value for general case studies reporting 0.53 with a standard deviation of 0.23. The standard deviations of variables indicated less spread or variability in the data collected over the years of the estimation period 1990 to 2019, indicating the results being more reliable. In conclusion, the study highlights the need to address the investment environment by addressing challenges such as political instability and wide differences in tax incentives. / Economics / M.. Com. (Economics)

Thesis (MAgricAdmin)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research provides South Africa's producers and exporters with information on new market opportunities for South Africa's selected agricultural and food products in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). There is increasing global competition and countries in Africa are increasingly targeted as export markets due to its population growth and its increasing per capita income. Both developed countries and developing countries such as the United States of America, China, Brazil, India, etc. are gradually increasing their exports to Africa. In Sub-Saharan Africa, this is also taking place in SADC. In this region, there has been a significant increase in total imports from the mentioned countries from 2001 to 2013. The International Trade Centre market selection method was used for product selection (using the Export Potential Index) and country selection (using the Market Attractiveness Index). Fourteen products were selected and Angola is the most attractive market in the region (SADC) and is ranked first in the Market Attractiveness Index for seven of the fourteen selected products. The top ranking markets for the 14 selected products were identified as: Mauritius for maize, sweetened milk powder, raw cane sugar and wheat or meslin flour; Angola for fresh apples, fresh or dried oranges, sparkling wine, bulk wine, refined cane or beet sugar, frozen bovine cuts, and frozen bovine carcasses and half carcasses; Mozambique for bottled wine; and Zambia for fresh grapes and soya beans. In most cases the countries with the second and third highest rankings in the Market Attractiveness Index also offer opportunities for market diversification. South Africa exports certain products to non-African countries, whereas these non-African countries export the same products to SADC. There are therefore opportunities geographically nearer to South Africa, because South Africa could export these products to SADC. Exporters should not necessarily abandon non-African markets in order to export to SADC; however they should be aware of opportunities close by and develop strategies to maximize profit and maintain sustainable markets. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie navorsing bied aan Suid-Afrika se produsente en uitvoerders inligting oor nuwe markgeleenthede vir Suid-Afrika se geselekteerde landbou-en voedselprodukte in die Suider Afrikaanse Ontwikkelingsgemeenskap (SAOG). Daar is toenemende globale mededinging en lande in Afrika word toenemend geteiken as uitvoermarkte as gevolg van bevolkingsgroei en die stygende per capita inkomste. Beide ontwikkelde en ontwikkelende lande soos die Verenigde State van Amerika, China, Brasilië, Indië, ens. verhoog geleidelik hulle uitvoere na Afrika. In Sub-Sahara Afrika, gebeur dit ook in SAOG. In hierdie streek, was daar „n betekenisvolle toename in invoere vanaf die genoemde lande van 2001 tot 2013. Die Internasionale Handelsentrum markseleksie metode is gebruik om produkte te kies (met die Uitvoer Potensiaal Indeks) en om lande te kies (met die Mark Aantreklikheidsindeks). Veertien produkte is gekies en Angola is die mees aantreklike mark in die streek (SAOG) en is bo-aan die lys in die Mark Aantreklikheidsindeks vir sewe van die veertien geselekteerde produkte. Die top markte vir die 14 geselekteerde produkte is geïdentifiseer as: Mauritius vir mielies, versoete melkpoeier, ruwe rietsuiker en mengkoringmeelblom; Angola vir vars appels, vars of gedroogde lemoene, vonkelwyn, grootmaat wyn, verwerkte riet- of beetsuiker, bevrore beessnitte, en bevrore bees karkasse en half karkasse; Mosambiek vir gebottelde wyn; en Zambië vir vars druiwe en vir sojabone. In meeste gevalle bied lande met die tweede en derde hoogste punte in die Mark Aantreklikheidsindeks ook geleenthede vir markdiversifikasie. Suid-Afrika voer sekere produkte uit na nie-Afrika lande, terwyl hierdie nie-Afrika lande weer dieselfde produkte na die SAOG uitvoer. Daar is dus geleenthede geografiese nader aan Suid-Afrika, want Suid-Afrika kan hierdie produkte na die SAOG uitvoer. Uivoerders moet nie noodwendig oorsese markte laat vaar om na die SAOG uit te voer nie, maar hulle moet bewus wees van nader geleenthede en strategieë ontwikkel om wins te maksimeer en volhoubare markte te handhaaf.

This study focussed on the transformation of the institutions of local government from deconcentration, delegation to devolution. This transformation can be looked at starting with the institutions inherited from the colonial era, which started after the Berlin Conference of 1884, which divided Africa among the western powers. Then the transformation, which took place immediately after independence / that is the period of 1960s, the changes made in the 1980s and finally the transformation taking place following the multiparty democracy in the 1990s. The study looked at decentralisation during the colonial period / decentralisation after independence, with a particular focus on the institutions under a single party system / transformation of local government under multiparty system. It also examined the challenges facing decentralisation in the SADC region.

This thesis focuses on the relationship between trade and FDI in the SADC. While FDI is seen as a stimulus for growth and development, Africa is lagging behind other regions in attracting FDI. Whilst a number of reasons have been explored in the literature, the potential link between trade and FDI has not been explored in the African context. This may be potentially important, since African governments have been engaging in trade liberalisation and trade promotion over the past two decades. In this thesis, gravity modelling is used to investigate the trade-FDI relationship. Two single equation regression models are used in a preliminary investigation to evaluate aggregate trade and FDI. The third model consists of six panel regressions that evaluate the different relationships between the individual SADC countries and their individual major trading partners. A causality test is also carried out to confirm the relevance of trade as a determinant of FDI in the SADC. Overall results indicate that, in the specific case of the SADC, SADC exports significantly cause FDI. Distance from home countries and political instability are the most significant negative forces that affect FDI inflows. Home country exports deliver mixed results and these results suggest that the United States and the United Kingdom have a different FDI-trade relationship with the SADC than continental Europe, whereas Japan's exports prove insignificant. The policy implications are that the SADC will need to focus on attracting investment from countries that provide for complementary FDI and trade as this is optimal for poverty alleviation and job creation. Further research should focus on these policy areas and take into account the relevance of trade as a determinant of FDI. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Economics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Die onafhanklike lande van die Suider-Afrikaanse streek het, sedert hul respektiewelike onafhanklikwording, besluit om geen politieke bande of verhoudinge met hul kragtige, suidelike buurman, Suid-Afrika, aan te knoop nie. Al hierdie lande het op politieke gebied daarin geslaag, behalwe Malawi. Op ekonomiese gebied, egter, en veral op die gebied van handelsverhoudinge, was hierdie frontlinie state nie suksesvol nie. In ‘n poging om Suid-Afrika te isoleer, is ‘n ekonomiese blok, die SADCC, op die been gebring. Met die stigting van die SADCC in 1980, het die groep die vermindering van ekonomiese afhanklikheid van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika as hoofdoelwit gestel. Hierdie studie is ‘n poging om die SADCC se suksesse en mislukkings in hierdie verband te evalueer. Verder word probeer om die probleme wat die organisasie ondervind het in hul pogings ter bereiking van hierdie doelwit, binne die Suider-Afrikaanse geo-politieke omgewing, te ondersoek, veral in die lig van Suid-Afrika se vasbeslotenheid om regionale ekonomiese en politieke heerskappy te behou. Terselfdertyd poog die navorser om klem te lê op die deursettingsvermoë van SADCC lede om hul afhanklikheid van die Republiek te verminder – al was die resultaat in meeste gevalle gering. Hierdie studie toon dat die ekonomiese realiteit van die Suider-Afrikaanse streek die politieke retoriek aan beide kante van die politieke spektrum ten volle oorheers het. Die aard van die handelsverhoudinge tussen die RSA en die SADCC ledelande is deurgaans deur strukturele kontraste en weersprekende feite gekompliseer. / Prof. G. Verhoef

Thesis (M.M. (Security))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, Graduate School of Public and Development Management, 2016 / This study seeks to interrogate how regional institutions in Africa construct their foreign policies. States are faced with a continuously evolving global structure and as a result face complex challenges that require the collaboration of collective efforts to resolve. In order to overcome such challenges states are tasked with the challenge that involves finding ways to amalgamate their policy frameworks. This is a serious challenge, but one that states must overcome if they are to find effective solutions to growing global challenges. What this research has endeavoured to achieve is show exactly how the task of forging collective or common foreign policy is achieved and what institutions are best suited to help African regions achieve their goals of a common foreign policy. To this end, the study uses qualitative design and employs document and content analysis, focusing on the structure and history of the two organisations (ECOWAS and SADC). It then looks at the three foreign policy approaches (climate change, terrorism, and maritime security), comparing the coordination of each and seeking out what works in terms of finding and/ or building of the necessary institutions in order to gauge the cohesion of the regional organisations given different contexts. The adherence to sovereignty by member states has proven once again to be an impediment where collaboration particularly of the supranational nature is concerned. What this study has endeavoured to do is to show that despite an adherence to sovereignty certain goals can be achieved. While the adherence to sovereignty is deemed a constraint towards cohesive regionalisation, this study finds that the issue is not necessarily an adherence to sovereignty, but the imposition of unrealistic or misplaced targets such as the vision of the two African sub-regions to acquire supranational institutions. For the most part, the findings were that African regionalism continues to evolve as intergovernmental organisations. Using Brosig’s (2013) typology of convergence This study has not only shed light into what works as a framework for achieving set goals and targets, but it has also shed light into the different types of arrangements that can be achieved given different contexts. This study hopes to add value to the understanding of the African regional society and how it makes and implements its decisions, The hope is that this also sheds light into understanding reasons behind policy failures and their successes thereof. / GR2018

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts, University of the Witvvatersrand, for the degree of Master of Arts. / Research for this thesis began in the anticipation of the SADCC's tenth anniversary. It proved to be an opportune moment to assess the organisation's achievements and to re-examine its goals. ln February 1990, F W de Klerk formally initiated a policy of domestic reforms that was to see South Africa re-accepted Into international society. At the same time the Southern Africa region was for a variety of reasons undergoing political and economic upheaval. Speculation about joint ventures between the re-admitted South African state and the SADCC became increasingly popular amongst political commentators. South African businesses, stifled by years of isolation, began to view the region as a lucrative market; and the SADCC, sensing approaching stagnation and a loss of initiative, proposed a restructuring of the organisation. The new organisation, the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) was formally launched in August 1992. It has not been given the same adulation as that accorded to its predeqessor, and in many respects is viewed with the same scepticism as other regional organisations in the developing world. / Andrew Chakane 2018