No description available.

An important difference exists between the way humans communicate route knowledge and the turn-by-turn route directions provided by the majority of current navigation services. Navigation services present route directions with the same amount of detail regardless the route segment’s significance in the instructions, user’s distance from the destination, and finally the level of user’s familiarity with particular parts of the environment. (For complete abstract open document)

This project starts with the idea to develop a game to train people in evacuation drills. The game has to allow people to learn evacuation plans. To do it, the core aspect to be considered is the transfer of spatial knowledge from a virtual environment. Hence in this study, the transfer of spatial knowledge has been evaluated. In particular, the acquisition from a virtual environment has been compared between head mounted display and desktop display. 26 subjects have participated in the experiment. They have been divided in two groups: the first group played the game with a desktop display, the second group played with a head mounted display. The collected data and feedback underline that it is possible to acquire spatial knowledge from a virtual environment, and that participants who used a desktop display obtain more nformation than participants who used head mounted display.

This thesis studies the acquisition of spatial knowledge, through the use of virtual reality, and the role that audio can have in this type of learning. Two versions of a simulator were developed, one with the presence of audio and the other one without. 26 participants, divided into two groups (one group per version), were tested the simulator. The goal is to understand if the version with audio would lead to greater learning than the other. The results show that there was no difference between the groups and that they have learned in the same way. Both groups have subjects who suffered nausea or dizziness, with a greater presence in the group with the audio. Future work could consider trying to reduce the problem of these symptoms to have a clearer analysis.

Navigation in large spaces is essential in any environment (both the real world and the virtual world) because one of the human fundamental needs is to know the surrounding environment and to freely navigate within the environment. For successful navigation in large-scale virtual environments (VEs), accurate spatial knowledge is required, especially in training and learning application domains. By acquiring accurate spatial knowledge, people can effectively understand spatial layout and objects in environments. In addition, spatial knowledge acquired from a large- scale VE can effectively be transferred to the real world activities. Numerous navigation techniques have been proposed to support successful navigation and effective spatial knowledge acquisition in large-scale VEs. Among them, walking-like navigation techniques have been shown to support spatial knowledge acquisition more effectively in large-scale VEs, compared to non-body-based and non-walking-based navigation techniques. However, walking-like navigation techniques in large-scale VEs still have some issues, such as whole-body fatigue, large-controlled-space and specialized system configuration that make the walking-like navigation techniques less convenient, and consequently less commonly used. Due to these issues, convenient non-walking-like navigation techniques are preferred although they are less effective for spatial learning. While most research and development efforts are centered around walking- like navigation techniques, a fresh approach is needed to effectively and conveniently support for human spatial learning. We propose an action-inspired approach, to design convenient and effective navigation techniques for supporting people to acquire accurate spatial knowledge acquisition or improve spatial learning. The action-inspired approach is based on our insights from learning, neuropsychological and neurophysiological theories. The theories suggest that action and perception are closely related and core elements of learning. Our observations indicated that specific body-parts are not necessarily related to learning. We identified two types of action-inspired approach, body-turn based and action-transferred. Body- turn based approach keeps body-turn but replaces cyclic leg-movements of original walking action with more convenient control to resolve the issues presented from walking-like navigation techniques. Action-transferred approach addresses the design trade-offs between effectiveness and convenience, the core concept of which is grounded in the motor equivalence theory. We provided two navigation techniques, body-turn based and action-transferred based ones, and demonstrated the benefits of our approach by evaluating these two navigation techniques for spatial knowledge acquisition in several empirical studies. We also developed our own walking-like navigation technique, Sensor- Fusion Walking-in-Place (SF-WIP) because we needed a reference navigation technique for estimating the effect of the action-transferred navigation technique on spatial knowledge acquisition compared to that of a walking-like navigation technique. We performed empirical user studies and the experimental results showed that body-turn based navigation technique was more effective for survey knowledge acquisition in a large-scale virtual maze, compared to a wand-joystick based common navigation technique (JS, i.e., non-body-based and non-walking-like navigation technique). However, no significant difference was found for route knowledge acquisition while the SF-WIP was more effective than the JS for both route and survey knowledge acquisition. The results of the SF-WIP were compatible to the results from other studies (using walking-like navigation techniques). The action-transferred navigation technique, named Finger-Walking-in-Place (FWIP), was more effective for both route and survey knowledge acquisition than the JS in the same large-scale, large-extent and visually impoverished virtual maze. In addition, our empirical studies showed that the SF-WIP and the FWIP are similarly effective for route and survey knowledge acquisition, suggesting that human's spatial learning ability is still supported by the transferred action (FWIP) as much as the original action (SF-WIP). Since there was no significant difference between FWIP and SF-WIP but the FWIP showed the better effect than the JS on spatial knowledge acquisition, we can infer that our action-transferred approach is useful for designing convenient and effective navigation techniques for spatial learning. Some design implications are discussed, suggesting that our action-transferred approach is not limited to navigation techniques and can be extensively used to design (general) interaction techniques. In particular, action-transferred design can be more effectively used for the users with disabilities (unable to use of a part of the body) or for fatigue/convenience reasons. Related to our theoretical reasoning, we established another user study to explore if the transferred action is still coupled with the perception that is known as coupled with the original action. Our study results supported that there was a close connection between distance perception and transferred action as literature suggests. Thus, this dissertation successfully supports our theoretical observations and our action-inspired approach to design of convenient and effective navigation techniques for spatial learning through our empirical studies. Although our conclusion is drawn from the empirical studies using a couple of NavTechs (body-turn and FWIP), and is therefore not the direct evidence at the neural level, it should be notable that our action-inspired design approach for effective spatial learning is strongly supported by the theories that have been demonstrated by a number of studies over time. / Ph. D.

In this study, we investigated whether modifying augmented reality head-up display (AR HUD) graphics’ perceptual form influences spatial learning of the environment. We employed a 2x2 between-subjects design in which twenty-four participants were counterbalanced by gender. We used a fixed base, medium-fidelity driving simulator at the COGENT lab at Virginia Tech. Two different navigation cues systems were compared: world-relative and screen-relative. The world-relative condition placed an artificial post sign at the corner of an approaching intersection containing a real landmark. The screen-relative condition displayed turn directions using a screen-fixed traditional arrow located directly ahead of the participant on the right or left side on the HUD. We captured empirical data regarding changes in driving behaviors, glance behaviors, spatial knowledge acquisition (measured in terms of landmark and route knowledge), reported workload, and usability of the interface. Results showed that both screen-relative and world-relative AR head-up display interfaces have similar impact on the levels of spatial knowledge acquired; suggesting that world-relative AR graphics may be used for navigation with no comparative reduction in spatial knowledge acquisition. Even though our initial assumption that the conformal AR HUD interface would draw drivers’ attention to a specific part of the display was correct, this type of interface was not helpful to increase spatial knowledge acquisition. This finding contrasts a common perspective in the AR community that conformal, world-relative graphics are inherently more effective than screen-relative graphics. We suggest that simple, screen-fixed designs may indeed be effective in certain contexts. Finally, eye-tracking analyses showed fundamental differences in the way participants visually interacted with different AR HUD interfaces; with conformal-graphics demanding more visual attention from drivers. We showed that the distribution of visual attention allocation was that the world-relative condition was typically associated with fewer glances in total, but glances of longer duration. / M.S. / As humans, we develop mental representations of our surroundings as we move through and learn about our environment. When navigating via car, developing robust mental representations (spatial knowledge) of the environment is crucial in situations where technology fails, or we need to find locations not included in a navigation system’s database. Over-reliance on traditional in-vehicle navigation devices has been shown to negatively impact our ability to navigate based on our own internal knowledge. Recently, the automotive industry has been developing new in-vehicle devices that have the potential to promote more active navigation and potentially enhance spatial knowledge acquisition. Vehicles with augmented reality (AR) graphics delivered via head-up displays (HUDs) present navigation information directly within drivers’ forward field of view, allowing drivers to gather information needed without looking away from the road. While this AR navigation technology is promising, the nuances of interface design and its impacts on drivers must be further understood before AR can be widely and safely incorporated into vehicles. In this work, we present a user study that examines how screen-relative and world-relative AR HUD interface designs affect drivers’ spatial knowledge acquisition. Results showed that both screen-relative and world-relative AR head-up display interfaces have similar impact on the levels of spatial knowledge acquired; suggesting that world-relative AR graphics may be used for navigation with no comparative reduction in spatial knowledge acquisition. However, eye-tracking analyses showed fundamental differences in the way participants visually interacted with different AR HUD interfaces; with conformal-graphics demanding more visual attention from drivers

No description available.

Wayfinding is a complex skill and the lack of tools supporting the specific sub-types of navigation hinders performance in large-scale virtual environments and consequently can slow the adoption of virtual technology for training. The VTrail System is designed to support virtual training by providing trainers (trailblazers) with the ability to create trails to guide users (trail followers) during training simulations. Without an effective interface to assist with creating trails, the task of trailblazing remains difficult. The objective of this research was to design a default interface for the VTrail System that adheres to the basic human factors engineering guidelines of simplicity, universality, and that does not interfere with primary task performance. Two studies (trailblazing, trail following), with a total of four experiments, were performed to evaluate and modify the proposed interfaces. The first experiments in each study determined that the proposed default interfaces are simple enough to use so as to not interfere with primary task performance. The second set of experiments found that, aside from the interface components included in the default interface, novice trailblazers and trail followers did not make use of any additional wayfinding aids when users were provided with the ability to create a custom interface. Secondary benefits included; the development of a novel approach for measuring spatial knowledge acquisition (called the SKAT), a set of criteria for qualitative analysis of trail quality in the form of the Trail Quality Questionnaire (referred to as TQQ), and improved understanding of the role individual differences, such as gender and spatial ability, in wayfinding performance. The high correlation between spatial ability score and performance on the SKAT suggests that the test provides a valid means of measuring spatial knowledge acquisition in a virtual environment. A measurable difference in the trail quality between males and females indicates that the TQQ can distinguish between trails of variable quality. Finally, there are measurable gender performance differences, despite similar levels in spatial ability between the genders. With the proposed interface designs the VTrail is closer to being ready to be incorporated as a support tool into virtual training programs. In addition, the designs for the VTrail System can be adapted for other platforms to support trailblazing in a range of applications, from use in military operations to providing an enhanced tourism experience. This research also serves as a starting point for future research projects on topics ranging from improving the design of the SKAT measure to understanding the effect of expertise on trailblazing performance.

Wayfinding is a complex skill and the lack of tools supporting the specific sub-types of navigation hinders performance in large-scale virtual environments and consequently can slow the adoption of virtual technology for training. The VTrail System is designed to support virtual training by providing trainers (trailblazers) with the ability to create trails to guide users (trail followers) during training simulations. Without an effective interface to assist with creating trails, the task of trailblazing remains difficult. The objective of this research was to design a default interface for the VTrail System that adheres to the basic human factors engineering guidelines of simplicity, universality, and that does not interfere with primary task performance. Two studies (trailblazing, trail following), with a total of four experiments, were performed to evaluate and modify the proposed interfaces. The first experiments in each study determined that the proposed default interfaces are simple enough to use so as to not interfere with primary task performance. The second set of experiments found that, aside from the interface components included in the default interface, novice trailblazers and trail followers did not make use of any additional wayfinding aids when users were provided with the ability to create a custom interface. Secondary benefits included; the development of a novel approach for measuring spatial knowledge acquisition (called the SKAT), a set of criteria for qualitative analysis of trail quality in the form of the Trail Quality Questionnaire (referred to as TQQ), and improved understanding of the role individual differences, such as gender and spatial ability, in wayfinding performance. The high correlation between spatial ability score and performance on the SKAT suggests that the test provides a valid means of measuring spatial knowledge acquisition in a virtual environment. A measurable difference in the trail quality between males and females indicates that the TQQ can distinguish between trails of variable quality. Finally, there are measurable gender performance differences, despite similar levels in spatial ability between the genders. With the proposed interface designs the VTrail is closer to being ready to be incorporated as a support tool into virtual training programs. In addition, the designs for the VTrail System can be adapted for other platforms to support trailblazing in a range of applications, from use in military operations to providing an enhanced tourism experience. This research also serves as a starting point for future research projects on topics ranging from improving the design of the SKAT measure to understanding the effect of expertise on trailblazing performance.

This volume deals with the exchange of spatial knowledge that accompanied the nineteenth-century European exploration of what are today eastern Senegambia and southwestern Mali. The travelogues of Raffenel and Gallieni are analysed with regard to how spatial information was negotiated, under what conditions it was transmitted and what problems arose. The dependence of the two Frenchmen on African informants is demonstrated, and in some cases it can be shown that they incorporated African spatial knowledge into their monographs and maps.