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Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is the most abundant by-product of the brewing industry and its main application is limited to low-value cattle feed. Since BSG contains 20 to 25% of proteins, it has the potential to provide a new protein source to the food industry. In this research, an ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction was designed to extract protein hydrolysates from BSG. Original BSG and ultrasound pretreated BSG were hydrolyzed under different enzyme (Alcalase) loadings and incubation times. Centrifugation was applied to separate solubilized proteins from insoluble BSG residue. When the enzyme loading increased from 1 to 40 uL /g BSG, the solubilized proteins increased from 34% to 64.8%. The application of ultrasound further increased the solubilized proteins from 64.8% to 69.8%. Solubilized proteins from ultrasound pretreated BSG was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that from the original BSG. Particle size distribution analysis showed that the application of ultrasound pretreatment reduced the BSG particle size from 331.2 to 215.7 um. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed that the BSG particle surface was partially ruptured by the ultrasound pretreatment. These two phenomena might have contributed to the increased protein separation efficiency with ultrasound pretreatment. The solubility (pH 1.0 to 11.0) of protein hydrolysate increased by the application of ultrasound and the ultrasound did not lead to the change of the amino acid composition of the separated protein hydrolysates. Based on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis profile, the protein was degraded to peptides which had molecular weights lower than 15 kDa. The color of the separated protein hydrolysates by enzymatic hydrolysis was brighter and lighter than the original BSG. The application of ultrasound did not affect the color of the separated protein hydrolysates. Overall, the ultrasound pretreatment prior to enzymatic hydrolysis enhanced the extraction of proteins from BSG in terms of higher protein separation efficiency, lower enzyme loadings, and reduced incubation time. This study developed a novel and green method to effectively extract value-added protein hydrolysates from the low-value food processing byproducts. / MSLFS / Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) is the most abundant waste generated by beer industries after beer production and it is mainly used to feed cattle. Since BSG contains 20 to 25% proteins, it has the potential to provide a new protein source to food industries. The aim of this research is to study if the ultrasound technology can assist the enzymatic extraction of proteins from BSG. If it can, the cost of the protein extraction from BSG can be reduced. In this research, the original BSG and the BSG pretreated with ultrasound were incubated under different enzyme loadings and incubation times. The protein-rich liquid was separated from fiber-rich solids using a centrifuge. When the enzyme loading increased from 1 to 40 L /g BSG, 34% to 64.8% of proteins were separated from the original BSG. The application of ultrasound further increased the solubilized proteins from 64.8% to 69.8%. For the BSG pretreated with ultrasound, there were significantly more proteins separated from BSG compared to the original BSG. Particle size of the original BSG and the ultrasound pretreated BSG was measured, and the results showed that the application of ultrasound pretreatment decreased the BSG particle size from 331.2 to 215.7 µm. Scanning electron microscopy images were taken to investigate the effect of ultrasound on the surface of BSG particles. Based on the photos, we found that the BSG particle surface was partially broken by the ultrasound pretreatment. The surface was rough and contained large amounts of holes instead of being flat and smooth observed without ultrasound. Therefore, there were more locations for the enzyme to attack. These two phenomena might have contributed to extracting more proteins from BSG. Protein solubility (pH 1.0 to 11.0) increased by the application of ultrasound. The nutritional value of the protein extracted was not altered by the ultrasound. The extracted protein hydrolysates had a small molecular weight and the application of ultrasound did not affect the color of the extracted protein hydrolysates. The ultrasound pretreatment prior to enzymatic hydrolysis increased the extraction of proteins from BSG, decreased the enzyme consumption and incubation time. This study developed a novel and green method to effectively extract value-added protein hydrolysates from the low-value food processing byproducts.

Distillers’ spent grain (DSG) is a by-product of ethanol production and used for swine feed supplement due to its nutrient composition. Lowering the moisture content of DSG using superheated steam (SS) drying can be more energy efficient compared to hot air drying. One objective was to investigate parameters associated with SS drying on DSG including maximum condensation, condensation time, and restoration time. Increasing SS temperature from 120 to 180 °C and SS velocity from 1.0 to 1.4 m/s resulted in a 97% and 67% decrease in maximum condensation, respectively. Another objective was to determine the effect of SS temperature, velocity, and pellet orientation on effective moisture diffusivity of DSG pellets. The diffusion model was based on finite cylinder geometry accounting for volumetric shrinkage. The diffusivity coefficient was determined to be 1.56 × 10-8 m2/s. A significant effect of pellet orientation on moisture diffusivity was found during the constant drying-rate period. / October 2015

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a main by-product of beer manufacturing and is rich in nutrients including 15-30% protein, making it a potentially valuable protein source for human food. Current challenges of extracting protein from BSG include low yields and high manufacturing costs, but the rising trend of plant-based diets for environmental and health reasons increases BSG's appeal. This research proposes an innovative extraction process utilizing wet fractionation and enzymatic purification that targets fiber to effectively separate proteins form BSG. Additionally, the feasibility of BSG protein as a food ingredient is explored, offering a unique approach that limits harsh processing commonly used for protein extraction. The choice of the enzyme (CTec 2 and Viscozyme L), enzyme dose, and incubation time (1, 3, 6, 9, and 24 hrs) were investigated to maximize protein content and recovery and further evaluate processing effects on protein functionality. Following wet fractionation, there was a notable reduction in fiber from 48.6% in the BSG to 22.5% in the filtrate (PRF) on a dry basis. Additionally, the protein content increased from 22.8 to 40.0% from the BSG to the PRF, respectively. The coarse fiber (CF) had an average protein content of 6.30%, highlighting the effectiveness of wet fractionation in enhancing protein recovery from BSG. The optimal enzymatic treatments condition identified was using CTec 2 to degrade fiber at a dose of 6.00% (g enzyme/g solid) for 24 hours. The enzymatic fiber hydrolysis proved to be able to remove lignocellulosic biomass from BSG resulting in a defatted protein concentrate (DPC) with a high protein content (52.8%) along with a high recovery rate (63%). All treatments resulted in protein functionality similar to the two control treatments. Varying fiber hydrolysis conditions did not have a significant effect on the functional properties. Several functional properties were improved using limited hydrolysis (LH) using proteases. LH had negative impacts on foaming stability and emulsifying properties; however, it improved the solubility, foaming capacity, WHC, and OHC of the BSG protein. Potential applications for the DPC include low moisture applications such as protein bars or granola. The DPCs could also have potential use in meat alternatives due to the high WHC and OHC and the need for varying protein solubility in meat alternatives. The LH protein has greater potential in applications such as protein beverages due to the high solubility. This process presents a promising protein extraction approach from BSG, offering producers the flexibility to tailor it to their specific application needs. After obtaining the protein concentrate, additional steps like defatting or limited hydrolysis can be applied to improve the purity and functionality of the result protein. Notably, this approach contributes to sustainable food production by addressing food waste and meeting the rising demand for sustainable protein sources to support the nutritional needs of a growing global population. / Master of Science in Life Sciences / Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a by-product of beer manufacturing with rich nutrients, including 15-30% protein. It holds potential as a valuable protein source for human food. Current challenges of extracting protein from BSG include low yields and high costs, but the rising trend of plant-based diets for environmental and health reasons increases BSG's appeal. Its abundant availability year-round makes it an attractive option for human food. In this study, an innovative process to extract protein from BSG was explored using wet fractionation to separate the BSG by size. Enzymes were then used to remove remaining fiber. Various enzymes and times were tested to optimize extraction and achieve a high protein content and recovery rate. The protein's physicochemical and functional properties were then evaluated for potential uses in human food. After wet fractionation, nearly half the fiber was removed, and the protein content increased by 17.2%. Using an enzyme called CTec 2 for 24 hours worked best, resulting in a protein concentrate with a high protein content (52.8%) and good recovery (63.0%). Changes in enzyme treatments did not have a significant effect on the protein functional properties. Potential applications for the protein concentrates include low moisture applications such as protein bars or granola due to the poor solubility. The protein concentrates could also have potential use in meat alternatives due to the water and oil holding properties. The low solubility of the protein concentrates was improved using a process called limited hydrolysis making it possible to apply to products like protein beverages. This research highlights BSG's potential as a valuable protein source for protein bars, meat alternatives, and protein beverages. These findings provide a promising approach to utilize BSG as a valuable plant protein source for a healthier and more environmentally friendly food production.

O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a produção de etanol pela levedura Pichia stipitis, a partir do hidrolisado hemicelulósico do bagaço de malte (HHBM). Primeiramente estudou-se o efeito da suplementação nutricional do hidrolisado adicionando-se extrato de farelo de arroz (0 a 20% v/v), uréia (0 a 3 g/L) e extrato de levedura (0 a 3 g/L). Os resultados mostraram que o hidrolisado suplementado apenas com extrato de levedura proporcionou os melhores resultados de conversão (YP/S = 0,44 g/g) e produtividade em etanol (QP = 0,33 g/L.h). Em seguida foi avaliado o nível ótimo deste nutriente sobre a bioconversão, sendo confirmada a suplementação do HHBM com 3,0 g/L de extrato de levedura. Após o estabelecimento das condições nutricionais, a levedura foi cultivada em HHBM após o crescimento de 24 horas em meio semissintético, visando aclimatar as células aos inibidores presentes no hidrolisado. Este estudo resultou no aumento das velocidades do processo, sendo 16% sobre a produtividade volumétrica em etanol (QP) e 10% sobre a velocidade de consumo de substrato (QS), quando comparado ao cultivo das células somente em meio semissintético. Na etapa seguinte utilizou-se um planejamento fatorial 22 com face centrada para otimização das condições de pH e concentração inicial de células (X0) na fermentação em HHBM não destoxificado e após a destoxificação com carvão ativado. Foram obtidos modelos para descrever os valores de YP/S e QP na região estudada, sendo que para o HHBM não destoxificado os valores destes parâmetros foram 0,40 g/g e 0,65 g/L.h, respectivamente, em pH 6,4 e X0 = 5,0 g/L (modelo 1). Em HHBM destoxificado, as condições ótimas foram obtidas em pH 6,0 e 1,36 g/L de células (modelo 2), obtendo-se YP/S de 0,40 g/g e QP de 0,46 g/L.h. Nas condições otimizadas foram então realizados ensaios que confirmaram a validade dos modelos 1 e 2, obtendo-se a máxima concentração de etanol (23,4 g/L), YP/S de 0,41 g/g e QP de 0,65 g/L.h em HHBM não destoxificado. Realizouse ensaios para avaliação do efeito do ácido acético sobre a fermentação em meio semissintético por P. stipitis, empregando-se as condições de pH e X0 otimizadas em HHBM não destoxificado (modelo 1) e destoxificado (modelo 2). Este estudo mostrou que nas condições do modelo 1, o ácido acético favoreceu a bioconversão sendo os melhores resultados obtidos na presença deste ácido (YP/S = 0,47 g/g e QP = 1,08 g/L.h). Por outro lado, nas condições do modelo 2, os valores de YP/S foram similares, enquanto que com a adição de ácido acético ao meio de fermentação, o valor de QP foi reduzido em 53%. Na fermentação em biorreator, o emprego das condições otimizadas em frascos (pH 6,4 e 5,0 g/L de células) resultaram em valores de QP 48% inferiores ao obtido em frascos (0,65 para 0,44 g/L.h), entretanto YP/S foi apenas 10% inferior (0,41 para 0,37 g/g). No presente estudo, conclui-se que a suplementação nutricional do HHBM e a otimização das condições de pH e X0 resultaram em valores promissores para os principais parâmetros da fermentação por P. stipitis, ressaltando o potencial deste hidrolisado em processos biotecnológicos para produção de etanol. / This study aimed to evaluate the ethanol production by Pichia stipitis in brewer\'s spent grain hemicellulosic hydrolysate (BSGHH). Initially, the effect of nutritional supplementation was evaluated by adding rice bran extract, urea and yeast extract. The results showed that supplementation only with yeast extract promoted the highest conversion values (YP/S = 0.44 g/L) and ethanol productivity (QP = 0.33 g/L.h). Additional assays showed that the optimal concentration of this nutrient was 3.0 g/L. To acclimate the cells to inhibitors present in BSGHH the yeast was cultivated in hydrolysate after growth for 24 hours in semisynthetic medium. This study resulted in increased of the process rates, 16% of the ethanol productivity (QP) and 10% on the substrate consumption (QS) when compared to growing cells only in the semisynthetic medium. In the second step a 22 full factorial centeredface design was employed to optimized the conditions of pH and initial cells concentration (X0) in fermentation of hydrolysate undetoxified and after detoxification with activated charcoal. Mathematical models that relate the YP/S and QP were obtained. For non-detoxified BSGHH (model 1) the optimal conditions of pH (6.4) and X0 (5.0 g/L) showed values parameters of 0.41 g/g and 0.65 g/L.h, respectively. In detoxified BSGHH (model 2) the optimum conditions of pH (6.0) and X0 (1.36 g/L), resulted in YP/S and QP values of 0.40 g/g and 0.46 g/L.h, respectively. Under these conditions, the the validity of the models were confirmed. The effect of acetic acid on fermentation by P. stipitis in semisynthetic medium, employing optimized conditions of pH and X0 in model 1 and model 2 was evaluated. The results showed that under the conditions of model 1 and in a concentration of 2,9 g/L, the acetic acid favored the bioconversion by P. stipitis, increasing the YP/S (15 %) and QP (66 %). On the other hand, in the conditions of the model 2 the YP/S values were similar, whereas the QP values were reduced by 53% when the acetic acid was added. By using these optimized conditions in bioreactor fermentation it was obtained the ethanol productivity was approximately 48% lower (0.65 to 0.44 g/L.h), however the ethanol production was similar as compared to fermentation flasks. It is possible conclude that the HHBSG requires nutritional supplementation and that the optimized conditions of pH and initial cells concentration can be used as a strategy in order to raising the fermentation parameters.

O presente trabalho se propôs a avaliar o efeito de uma etapa de tratamento alcalino no bagaço de malte visando à extração de acetato e de compostos fenólicos, e como consequência diminuir a concentração destes no hidrolisado hemicelulósico. Foi ainda objetivo deste trabalho, estudar o efeito do tratamento alcalino na bioconversão das frações celulósica e hemicelulósica do bagaço de malte, por meio de fermentação com as leveduras Kluyveromyces marxianus e Pichia stipitis, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que para todas as condições de tratamento alcalino avaliadas, ocorreu solubilização de acetato, compostos fenólicos e furanos, não sendo observada solubilização de açúcares. A capacidade de solubilização destes compostos aumentou com o aumento da concentração de hidróxido de sódio empregada até o tempo de 40 min, sendo observada uma concentração máxima de 0,86 g/L, 13,0 g/L e 0,58 g/L empregando 1%%, 2% e 2% de NaOH, respectivamente. Para todas as condições avaliadas, o tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte reduziu a concentração de ácido acético no hidrolisado hemicelulósico. A menor concentração (0,026 g/L) foi obtida após 20 minutos de tratamento com 2% de NaOH. Com relação à concentração xilose, o menor teor desta pentose (8,3 g/L) foi obtido após o tratamento do bagaço com 0,25 % de NaOH por 2 minutos e o maior (22,0 g/L) com 0,5% de NaOH por 60 minutos. Visando estabelecer as condições de tratamento alcalino que permitissem uma redução na concentração de ácido acético, concomitantemente ao favorecimento da solubilização de xilose no hidrolisado hemicelulósico e de glicose no hidrolisado celulósico, as condições de temperatura e concentração de NaOH do tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte foram otimizadas através de um planejamento estatístico. Nas condições otimizadas (concentração de NaOH de 0,63%, temperatura de 67,6°C e tempo de 20 min), o tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte promoveu uma redução de 90% na concentração de ácido acético, concomitante ao aumento de 4,5% e 15% na concentração de xilose no hidrolisado hemicelulósico e concentração de glicose no hidrolisado celulósico, respectivamente. Os resultados referentes à bioconversão da fração celulósica demonstraram que para ambas as configurações de processo avaliadas (SHF e SSF) a fermentação da celulignina do material tratado (CLT) forneceu maior concentração de etanol, e essa diferença foi mais pronunciada na SSF. Além disso, na SSF, a produtividade volumétrica total em etanol, a qual considera o tempo de sacarificação e fermentação no processo foi aumentada em 2,2 vezes em relação à SHF. Com relação a bioconversão da hemicelulose, os resultados mostraram que tanto para o hidrolisado do bagaço referência não tratado (HHR) quanto para o previamente tratado com álcali (HHT), a concentração máxima de etanol foi obtida após 89 horas de fermentação, porém na fermentação do (HHT) a produção de etanol foi cerca de 3 vezes superior a obtida no (HHR), passando de 5,8 para 17,4 g/L. Com base nos resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que a etapa de tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte, provavelmente promoveu mudanças estruturais na celulignina aumentando a liberação de glicose no hidrolisado e ainda foi capaz de remover substâncias inibidoras do metabolismo microbiano, especialmente o ácido acético, favorecendo o processo fermentativo da fração hemicelulósica. / This study aimed to evaluate the effect of alkaline treatment in brewer\'s spent grain on extraction of acetate and phenolic compounds, and consequently to decrease their levels on hemicellulosic hydrolyzate. In addition, the effect of the alkali treatment on the bioconversion of cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolyzates employing Kluyveromyces marxianus and Pichia stipitis, respectively, was also evaluated. The results showed that for all conditions of treatment studied occurred solubilization of acetate, phenolics and furans, but not sugars. The solubilizing capacity of these compounds increased with increasing concentration of sodium hydroxide employed until the time of 40 min, and the maximum concentration observed was 0.86 g / L 13.0 g / L and 0.58 g / L from 1%, 2% NaOH and 2%, respectively. For all conditions evaluated, alkali treatment of brewer\'s spent grain reduced the acetic acid concentration in hemicellulosic hydrolyzate. The lowest concentration (0.026 g / L) was obtained after 20 minutes with 2% NaOH. With respect to xylose concentration, the lower content of this pentose (8.3 g / L) was obtained after the treatment with 0.25% NaOH for 2 minutes and the highest (22.0 g / L) with 0.5 % NaOH for 60 minutes. To establish optimal conditions of temperature and NaOH concentration in the alkaline treatment aiming to decrease the concentration of acetic acid and, at the same time, increase the solubilization of xylose in the hemicellulose hydrolyzate and glucose in the cellulosic hydrolyzed, a statistical design was used. Under optimized conditions (NaOH concentration of 0.63%, a temperature of 67.6 °C and time of 20 min) alkaline treatment of the brewer\'s spent grain promoted a decrease of 90% in acetic acid concentration, concomitant to an increase of 4.5% and 15% on xylose concentration in the hemicellulose hydrolyzate and on glucose concentration in the cellulosic hydrolyzate, respectively. The results concerning the bioconversion of cellulosic fraction showed that for both configurations of the process evaluated (SHF and SSF) the treated material cellulignin (CLT) provided higher ethanol concentration, and this difference was more pronounced in SSF. In addition, in SSF, the total ethanol volumetric productivity, which considers time saccharification and fermentation process was increased by 2.2 times compared to SHF. In relation to the hemicellulose bioconversion, the results showed that for both hydrolyzate employed, i.e untreated (HHR) and previously treated with alkali (HHT), the maximum ethanol concentration was achieved after 89 hours of fermentation, however the ethanol production in HHT was about 3 times higher obtained in HHR (from 5.8 to 17.4 g/L). Based on these results, we conclude that the alkali treatment, probably induced structural changes in the fraction of cellulignin regarding glucose released in the hydrolyzate and still was able to remove substances inhibitory to microbial metabolism, especially acetic acid, favoring the fermentation of hemicellulose fraction.

O presente trabalho se propôs a avaliar o efeito de uma etapa de tratamento alcalino no bagaço de malte visando à extração de acetato e de compostos fenólicos, e como consequência diminuir a concentração destes no hidrolisado hemicelulósico. Foi ainda objetivo deste trabalho, estudar o efeito do tratamento alcalino na bioconversão das frações celulósica e hemicelulósica do bagaço de malte, por meio de fermentação com as leveduras Kluyveromyces marxianus e Pichia stipitis, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que para todas as condições de tratamento alcalino avaliadas, ocorreu solubilização de acetato, compostos fenólicos e furanos, não sendo observada solubilização de açúcares. A capacidade de solubilização destes compostos aumentou com o aumento da concentração de hidróxido de sódio empregada até o tempo de 40 min, sendo observada uma concentração máxima de 0,86 g/L, 13,0 g/L e 0,58 g/L empregando 1%%, 2% e 2% de NaOH, respectivamente. Para todas as condições avaliadas, o tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte reduziu a concentração de ácido acético no hidrolisado hemicelulósico. A menor concentração (0,026 g/L) foi obtida após 20 minutos de tratamento com 2% de NaOH. Com relação à concentração xilose, o menor teor desta pentose (8,3 g/L) foi obtido após o tratamento do bagaço com 0,25 % de NaOH por 2 minutos e o maior (22,0 g/L) com 0,5% de NaOH por 60 minutos. Visando estabelecer as condições de tratamento alcalino que permitissem uma redução na concentração de ácido acético, concomitantemente ao favorecimento da solubilização de xilose no hidrolisado hemicelulósico e de glicose no hidrolisado celulósico, as condições de temperatura e concentração de NaOH do tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte foram otimizadas através de um planejamento estatístico. Nas condições otimizadas (concentração de NaOH de 0,63%, temperatura de 67,6°C e tempo de 20 min), o tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte promoveu uma redução de 90% na concentração de ácido acético, concomitante ao aumento de 4,5% e 15% na concentração de xilose no hidrolisado hemicelulósico e concentração de glicose no hidrolisado celulósico, respectivamente. Os resultados referentes à bioconversão da fração celulósica demonstraram que para ambas as configurações de processo avaliadas (SHF e SSF) a fermentação da celulignina do material tratado (CLT) forneceu maior concentração de etanol, e essa diferença foi mais pronunciada na SSF. Além disso, na SSF, a produtividade volumétrica total em etanol, a qual considera o tempo de sacarificação e fermentação no processo foi aumentada em 2,2 vezes em relação à SHF. Com relação a bioconversão da hemicelulose, os resultados mostraram que tanto para o hidrolisado do bagaço referência não tratado (HHR) quanto para o previamente tratado com álcali (HHT), a concentração máxima de etanol foi obtida após 89 horas de fermentação, porém na fermentação do (HHT) a produção de etanol foi cerca de 3 vezes superior a obtida no (HHR), passando de 5,8 para 17,4 g/L. Com base nos resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que a etapa de tratamento alcalino do bagaço de malte, provavelmente promoveu mudanças estruturais na celulignina aumentando a liberação de glicose no hidrolisado e ainda foi capaz de remover substâncias inibidoras do metabolismo microbiano, especialmente o ácido acético, favorecendo o processo fermentativo da fração hemicelulósica. / This study aimed to evaluate the effect of alkaline treatment in brewer\'s spent grain on extraction of acetate and phenolic compounds, and consequently to decrease their levels on hemicellulosic hydrolyzate. In addition, the effect of the alkali treatment on the bioconversion of cellulose and hemicellulose hydrolyzates employing Kluyveromyces marxianus and Pichia stipitis, respectively, was also evaluated. The results showed that for all conditions of treatment studied occurred solubilization of acetate, phenolics and furans, but not sugars. The solubilizing capacity of these compounds increased with increasing concentration of sodium hydroxide employed until the time of 40 min, and the maximum concentration observed was 0.86 g / L 13.0 g / L and 0.58 g / L from 1%, 2% NaOH and 2%, respectively. For all conditions evaluated, alkali treatment of brewer\'s spent grain reduced the acetic acid concentration in hemicellulosic hydrolyzate. The lowest concentration (0.026 g / L) was obtained after 20 minutes with 2% NaOH. With respect to xylose concentration, the lower content of this pentose (8.3 g / L) was obtained after the treatment with 0.25% NaOH for 2 minutes and the highest (22.0 g / L) with 0.5 % NaOH for 60 minutes. To establish optimal conditions of temperature and NaOH concentration in the alkaline treatment aiming to decrease the concentration of acetic acid and, at the same time, increase the solubilization of xylose in the hemicellulose hydrolyzate and glucose in the cellulosic hydrolyzed, a statistical design was used. Under optimized conditions (NaOH concentration of 0.63%, a temperature of 67.6 °C and time of 20 min) alkaline treatment of the brewer\'s spent grain promoted a decrease of 90% in acetic acid concentration, concomitant to an increase of 4.5% and 15% on xylose concentration in the hemicellulose hydrolyzate and on glucose concentration in the cellulosic hydrolyzate, respectively. The results concerning the bioconversion of cellulosic fraction showed that for both configurations of the process evaluated (SHF and SSF) the treated material cellulignin (CLT) provided higher ethanol concentration, and this difference was more pronounced in SSF. In addition, in SSF, the total ethanol volumetric productivity, which considers time saccharification and fermentation process was increased by 2.2 times compared to SHF. In relation to the hemicellulose bioconversion, the results showed that for both hydrolyzate employed, i.e untreated (HHR) and previously treated with alkali (HHT), the maximum ethanol concentration was achieved after 89 hours of fermentation, however the ethanol production in HHT was about 3 times higher obtained in HHR (from 5.8 to 17.4 g/L). Based on these results, we conclude that the alkali treatment, probably induced structural changes in the fraction of cellulignin regarding glucose released in the hydrolyzate and still was able to remove substances inhibitory to microbial metabolism, especially acetic acid, favoring the fermentation of hemicellulose fraction.

Barley spent grain, the main residue of the brewing industry, is a lignocellulosic material, which could be considered a potential raw material for ethanol production. In this work, spent grains generated in a microbrewery were fractionated by acid hydrolysis and delignification. The investigated sort of barley spent grains had high carbohydrate content, accounting for 60% of the dry matter, while its lignin content was lower than that reported for other sorts of spent grains. Since the used spent grains contained residual starch different treatment approaches were used for separating their main components without affecting the sugars generated by starch hydrolysis. Two kinds of acid hydrolysis processes, namely single-step and two-step hydrolysis, were used for solubilising the carbohydrate fraction. Single-step hydrolysis was performed either at 100oC or at 121oC. In the two-step approach, a second hydrolysis, at 121oC, was performed after the first hydrolysis step. The dilute-acid hydrolysis at 100oC removed all the starch, whereas the hydrolysis at 121oC removed also a part of the hemicelluloses in addition to starch. During the second hydrolysis step, the content of easily hydrolysable polysaccharides decreased from 32.5 to 7.6% in the material pre-hydrolyzed at 100oC and from 20.3 to 10.6% in the material pre-hydrolyzed at 121oC. The amount of easily hydrolysable polysaccharides removed in the second step corresponded to 83% and 81.5% of the total removed matter in the materials pre-hydrolyzed at 100 and 121oC, respectively. In the next step, acetosolv and alkaline delignification, either alone or combined with acid hydrolysis, were used for dissolving the lignin fraction. A higher solubilisation occurred after alkaline delignification, where 83% of the initial material was removed. Only 34% of the initial lignin was removed by direct acetosolv, while the combined acid hydrolysis/acetosolv approach resulted in lignin removal between 70 and 75%. However, the resulted pulp still contained important amount of lignin. The acid prehydrolysis was also beneficial for alkaline delignification, but the effect was less noticeable than for acetosolv. Lignin removal increased from 95% in direct alkaline delignification to nearly 100% in the acid hydrolysis-assisted alkaline treatment. Two different methods were carried out for lignin precipitation. In the liquid fraction obtained by acetosolv, lignin was precipitated by water addition after concentration of the liquors to 75% of the initial volume. Although the visual inspection of the liquors after water addition revealed a relatively good lignin precipitation, the separation by filtration of the precipitated material was difficult, apparently due to the small particle size of precipitated lignin molecules. Some improvement was observed for the combined treatments, especially for those including two-step acid hydrolysis. The best recovery, 54% of the precipitated lignin, occurred for the process including consecutive acid hydrolyses at 100 and then at 121oC before acetosolv. In the alkaline liquors, lignin was precipitated by pH adjustment to 2.0 by HCl. Around 40.5% of the solubilised lignin was precipitated, and it increased to 85-100% when combined treatments were applied. The best results were achieved upon the treatment including acid prehydrolysis at 121oC before alkaline process.

Fast-paced lifestyles result in consumers replacing traditional meals with on-the-go snack foods. In general, snacks are higher in saturated fats and simple sugars, and pose health concerns for consumers, which prompts the need for healthy nutritious alternatives to common snacks. Proso millet is a nutritious, and fast growing gluten free cereal. Spent grain (SG), the main by-product of brewing and distilling, contains high amount of protein and insoluble fibers. This study utilized proso millet and spent grain in the production of an extruded expanded snack, demonstrating their appropriateness as an ingredient in food production. The first objective of this study was to determine the effect of extrusion processing conditions (moisture, barrel temperature, screw speed) on the physical, chemical, and functional properties of proso millet based extruded snack. The second objective of this research was to determine the effect of distiller’s spent grain (DSG) addition level and particle size on physicochemical and functional properties of extruded snacks. The third objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of spent grain type and particle size on the physicochemical and functional properties of extruded snacks. Samples were produced using a co-rotating twin-screw 25:1 L/D laboratory scale extruder.

Sustainable development is a growing concern for inhabitants of the planet earth. Consumption of fossil sources keeps up the depletion of nature’s capital and causes environmental impacts. One solution to have a sustainable society is to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels and substitute them by renewable energy sources. Among different types of renewable energy, biofuels have great potential for development and improvement. Though, the production of biofuels is criticized by many experts from the energy efficiency, environmental and economical points of view. Biogas as one type of first generation biofuels is achieved from the wastes and by-products of other industries, and can be used as a transportation fuel in the form of biomethane. The use of by-products may give added value as inputs to the biogas production process, a process which may be called "upcycling." The aim of upcycling is to convert wastes into new materials with higher quality or higher environmental value in order to reduce the consumption of raw materials which results in decreasing of energy usage and environmental impacts The aim of this thesis is to study the possibility of a biogas plant to act as an upcycler of wastes and by-products through anaerobic digestion process by the use of exergy analysis and economic evaluation. An imaginary biogas plant which uses a major by-product of brewing industry, i.e. Brewer’s Spent Grain (BSG), is considered to quantify the added value by biogas production process. The results of the exergy analysis show that the exergy of the input BSG (78,320 MJ) is upgraded into two main products as biomethane (47,430 MJ) and biofertilizer (37,026 MJ) with a total exergy amount of 84,456 MJ. On the other hand, the economic analysis of the studied biogas production process indicates that the biogas plant has the added value for the input material. In the economic analysis, the annual costs and benefits of the biogas production is calculated. The results show that the production of biomethane and biofertilizer from the by-product of brewing industry is profitable. However, the price of input BSG and also the variation price of the biofertilizer in different seasons, have great impact on the economy of a biogas plant. The outcomes from exergy and economic analysis are indicated that the biogas production process is an "upcycling" process which has the added value for the inputs, from both economic and quality points of view. The exergy and economic evaluation may be used as indicators of the sustainable development, but only increasing the exergy and the economic value of a production process alone should not be considered as the sustainability of a system.