Sport organizations have a negative impact on the environment but these organizations have begun environmental initiatives to decrease their impact. Introducing recycling programs not only offers visible environmental effort to decrease the organization’s impact but such programs can provide financial savings for the organization. Thus, my dissertation’s purpose is to understand the recycling intentions of sport spectators by the means of three studies theoretically framed using the theory of planned behavior. Study 1 examined the recycling intentions of individuals after consuming plastic water bottles within a campus environment. Participants were undergraduate students (N = 144) enrolled in physical activity classes at a southwestern university in the United States (males n=83, 57.6 percent, females n=60, 41.7 percent; mostly White n=96, 66.7 percent; age M=19.6, SD=1.33). The results indicate that subjective norms (β = .29, p < .001) and attitudes (β = .14, p < .05) towards recycling significantly predicted intentions to recycle plastic bottles after consumption. Study 2 analyzed the recycling intentions within a sport context. Participants (N=129) were adult spectators attending a weekend long youth baseball tournament in the Southwest United States (women n=85, 65.9 percent, men n=40, 31.0 percent; predominately White n=97, 75.2 percent; age M=44.47 years, SD=10.20). Similar to Study 1, subjective norms (β = .27, p < .01) significantly predicted intentions to recycle. However, unlike Study 1, perceived behavioral controls (β = .21, p < .05) were significant in predicting intentions to recycle. Lastly, Study 3 augmented my investigation to understand the unique context of recycling intentions among sport spectators. I used qualitative research methods to understand recycling intentions of spectators during a large scale-sporting event. Participants (N=16) were adults that regularly attend college football games at a large southwestern university (men n=10, women n=6; age M=37.44). The results indicate that recycling within a sport context is unique considering the game day atmosphere. Collectively, the findings from the three studies are discussed as to influence decision-making policies within sport organizations to improve recycling programs and to decrease the organization’s negative environmental impact. Finally, recommendations are made for future research to understand recycling behaviors of sport spectators.

Thesis. (M. Tech. (Dept. of Marketing, Faculty of Management Sciences)) -- Vaal University of Technology, 2011. / Spectators are key constituents of sport organisations’ success as a large spectator base attracts sponsors. Once a spectator enters a sport stadium, the physical environment and the experience of the game may lead to a relationship with the environment and a team resulting in the spectator either revisiting a sport stadium, recommending the venue to others or avoiding the environment. Spectator attendance at sports stadia is also a primary sources of revenue for sport events. Stadium attendance also brings different benefits for spectators as a stadium can add excitement and atmosphere to an event experience and opportunities for socialisation within the environment. The main purpose of this study was to determine the role of servicescapes in spectators’ attendance at selected sport stadiums in Gauteng. Since sport depends on the facility for its production and service delivery, place (distribution) is an essential component in the marketing mix, as it can lead to approach or avoidance behaviours. The study was conducted at two different stadiums namely (Soccer City (formerly FNB) and Orlando stadiums) in the Gauteng Province. A quantitative research approach was used. A structured questionnaire was administered to 200 spectators using non-probability convenience sampling. Data from a total of 170 completed questionnaires were analysed. Data analysis was undertaken in two phases: firstly by pilot testing the questionnaire and secondly by the consolidation of the main survey findings through a more detailed analysis. The data was analysed with a view to address the objectives of the study. In order to ensure high quality analysis, all evidence was considered and all major rival interpretations were also addressed. Factor analysis was used to determine the various servicescape dimensions. Seven factors of servicescape were extracted, namely scoreboard quality, refreshment provisioning, facility aesthetics, space allocation, stadium accessibility, seating comfort and stadium cleanliness. The findings in this study indicate that there is significant positive correlation between the seven factors and future attendance and also a desire to stay within the stadium. The regression analysis reported significant predictive relationships between the stadium servicescape, future attendance and also a desire to stay within the stadium. Regression models depict that spatial allocation and functionality followed by stadia cleanliness made the greatest impact on spectators’ desire to stay within a servicescape and seating comfort and facility aesthetics significantly contributes to future patronage. Recommendations in this study suggest that stadium management and sport marketers should not concentrate on one factor but on several servicescape factors in order to maintain spectator patronage on sport stadium. By fulfilling spectators’ expectations, sport marketers and stadium management should ensure that spectators are satisfied with the stadium facilities and the physical environment to maintain their retention and loyalty to the stadium. / Central Research Committee. Vaal University of Technology.

Sport and sport events contribute a big percentage to the growth of sport tourism in South Africa. South Africa also hosts some of the most significant endurance events such as the Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon. These endurance events have the potential to enhance endurance sport in South Africa and can also be used as a tool for tourism. It is important however, to determine the endurance sport consumption behaviour for participants and spectators who attend these events, since their behaviour and habits will influence their choices pertaining to travelling for sport events and even tourism. Sport tourism literature currently does not provide information and insight on this matter. Due to the lack of literature pertaining to endurance sport consumption behaviour, a description had to be provided to aid with the study. Endurance sport consumption behaviour (ESCB) in this study is therefore described as behaviour revealed by sport consumers who adapt their lifestyles after realising their desire to be self-complete, by testing and developing their bodies through sport activities. Sport consumption becomes the essence when participating in competitive, nature-related and fitness activities for both professional and amateur sport consumers. For spectatorship, these behaviours will differ, since the intentions of fans and supporters as well as the reasons for spectating differ, but sport events give them the opportunity to engage in sport on a different level, whether for the event or for the participant. These behavioural intentions can be influenced by the sport consumers’ attitude and subjective norms. ESCB is influenced by three main factors and includes: the demographic and behavioural profile; the motives and travel behaviour and the commitment towards the sport/event. The goal of the study was therefore to do a critical assessment of sport consumption at endurance sport events. In order to achieve this aim, secondary data of five endurance events (Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon) were pooled. A total of 6453 questionnaires were distributed between the respective events for both participants and spectators attending these sport events and were included in the statistical analysis. From a first point of view, these sport consumers might seem homogenous, but when analysing the results, it became evident that sport participants and spectators (with regards to participation and support of endurance events) were not homogenous pertaining to their sport consumption behaviour at the respective endurance sport events. There are four main aspects that drive ESCB for endurance participants, namely the type of participant who pursues the sport; the age of the participant; the type of sport and the motives to participate. Four travel motives for these endurance sport participants were commitment, intrinsic achievement, escape and socialisation and the challenge these events provide. Endurance participants furthermore see sport events as an opportunity to travel. The spectators’ ESCB were driven by their socio-demographic and behavioural profile and the motives for supporting the respective endurance events. Endurance sport spectators were motivated by the social interaction and the sport novelty of the sport events. Their memorable experiences were influenced by the event’s personnel and provision, amenities, comfort and visibility, infrastructure and marketing. The study made literature contributions pertaining to the description of ESCB, which were lacking from sport tourism literature. Based on the results, recommendations were made, not only based on ESCB, but also on how these types of events can be used to enhance sport tourism in South Africa as well as the participation and support for these types of sport. Spectators’ views on endurance sport events were also lacking. The study indicated that these consumers were personally involved with the participants’ journey to success, compared to supporters who attended for the event in specific. In this study, sport consumer profiles are compared on a large scale, which have not yet been done in current sport literature, providing a holistic overview of endurance sport consumers. Sport consumer profiles are influenced by the sport context and the marketing of these events, but most importantly the ESCB. Practical contributions include the specialisation for endurance sport events, the growth for sport and tourism and insights to consumer behaviour for sport event organisers and marketers. This study is important, especially for sport marketers and organisations, in order to ensure the long term sustainability and competitiveness for the sport industry as well as for expanding sport tourism and tourism in South Africa. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Sport and sport events contribute a big percentage to the growth of sport tourism in South Africa. South Africa also hosts some of the most significant endurance events such as the Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon. These endurance events have the potential to enhance endurance sport in South Africa and can also be used as a tool for tourism. It is important however, to determine the endurance sport consumption behaviour for participants and spectators who attend these events, since their behaviour and habits will influence their choices pertaining to travelling for sport events and even tourism. Sport tourism literature currently does not provide information and insight on this matter. Due to the lack of literature pertaining to endurance sport consumption behaviour, a description had to be provided to aid with the study. Endurance sport consumption behaviour (ESCB) in this study is therefore described as behaviour revealed by sport consumers who adapt their lifestyles after realising their desire to be self-complete, by testing and developing their bodies through sport activities. Sport consumption becomes the essence when participating in competitive, nature-related and fitness activities for both professional and amateur sport consumers. For spectatorship, these behaviours will differ, since the intentions of fans and supporters as well as the reasons for spectating differ, but sport events give them the opportunity to engage in sport on a different level, whether for the event or for the participant. These behavioural intentions can be influenced by the sport consumers’ attitude and subjective norms. ESCB is influenced by three main factors and includes: the demographic and behavioural profile; the motives and travel behaviour and the commitment towards the sport/event. The goal of the study was therefore to do a critical assessment of sport consumption at endurance sport events. In order to achieve this aim, secondary data of five endurance events (Cape Argus, Cape Epic, Midmar Mile, Two Oceans Marathon and the Comrades Marathon) were pooled. A total of 6453 questionnaires were distributed between the respective events for both participants and spectators attending these sport events and were included in the statistical analysis. From a first point of view, these sport consumers might seem homogenous, but when analysing the results, it became evident that sport participants and spectators (with regards to participation and support of endurance events) were not homogenous pertaining to their sport consumption behaviour at the respective endurance sport events. There are four main aspects that drive ESCB for endurance participants, namely the type of participant who pursues the sport; the age of the participant; the type of sport and the motives to participate. Four travel motives for these endurance sport participants were commitment, intrinsic achievement, escape and socialisation and the challenge these events provide. Endurance participants furthermore see sport events as an opportunity to travel. The spectators’ ESCB were driven by their socio-demographic and behavioural profile and the motives for supporting the respective endurance events. Endurance sport spectators were motivated by the social interaction and the sport novelty of the sport events. Their memorable experiences were influenced by the event’s personnel and provision, amenities, comfort and visibility, infrastructure and marketing. The study made literature contributions pertaining to the description of ESCB, which were lacking from sport tourism literature. Based on the results, recommendations were made, not only based on ESCB, but also on how these types of events can be used to enhance sport tourism in South Africa as well as the participation and support for these types of sport. Spectators’ views on endurance sport events were also lacking. The study indicated that these consumers were personally involved with the participants’ journey to success, compared to supporters who attended for the event in specific. In this study, sport consumer profiles are compared on a large scale, which have not yet been done in current sport literature, providing a holistic overview of endurance sport consumers. Sport consumer profiles are influenced by the sport context and the marketing of these events, but most importantly the ESCB. Practical contributions include the specialisation for endurance sport events, the growth for sport and tourism and insights to consumer behaviour for sport event organisers and marketers. This study is important, especially for sport marketers and organisations, in order to ensure the long term sustainability and competitiveness for the sport industry as well as for expanding sport tourism and tourism in South Africa. / PhD (Tourism Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

La raison d'être de l'étude est d'élargir les connaissances sur les relations du spectateur sportif contemporain avec les équipes sportives et les instances dirigeantes du sport. En incluant le spectateur, l'équipe et l'organe directeur dans un modèle holistique de gestion des relations avec les supporters, cette étude donne un aperçu de la formation de la fidélité au sein de la triade spectateur-équipe-organisation sportive. Une approche de modélisation par équation structurelle est utilisée pour tester, affiner et valider le modèle parmi des échantillons de quatre cent cinquante-cinq et cinq cent cinq spectateurs de football en France et en Allemagne. De plus, une analyse du profil latent est mise en œuvre pour découvrir des profils de spectateurs basés sur une conceptualisation bidimensionnelle de la fidélité. Des analyses de profils latents supplémentaires avec des covariables du modèle permettent d'identifier les variables qui définissent l'appartenance au profil. Le modèle final a révélé d'importantes différences propres à chaque pays dans les relations au sein de la triade spectateur- équipe-organisation sportive. Dans les deux échantillons, nous avons trouvé des spectateurs non fidèles, fidèles à l’état latent et fidèles. Pour la France, cependant, la satisfaction et la confiance ne contribuent pas à la fidélité, ce qui est une contradiction notable avec la littérature marketing. Cette étude est utile pour apprécier le rôle d'une instance dirigeante sportive dans la relation spectateur-équipe. De plus, il offre de nouvelles perspectives sur le profil des spectateurs et encourage la mise en place d'une variable de crédibilité dans l'étude de la gestion des relations dans le sport. Dans l'ensemble, l'approche holistique de l'étude dans l'analyse des relations et de la fidélité est unique dans la littérature scientifique sur le marketing sportif / The rationale of the study is to broaden the knowledge on the contemporary sport spectator’s relationships with sports teams and sport governing bodies. By including the spectator, the team, and the governing body in a holistic Fan-Relationship- Management-Model, this study gives insights in the formation of loyalty within the spectator-team-governing body-triad. A structural equation modelling approach is used to test, refine and validate the model among samples of four hundred fifty-five and five hundred five football spectators from France and Germany. Further, a latent profile analysis is implemented to uncover spectator profiles based on a two- dimensional loyalty conceptualisation. Additional latent profile analyses with covariates from the model, allow identifying variables that facilitate profile belongingness. The final model revealed major country-specific differences in the relationships within the spectator-team-governing body-triad. In both samples we found non-loyal, latent loyal, and loyal spectators. For France, however, satisfaction and trust do not contribute to loyalty; a notable contradiction to the established marketing literature. This study is useful to appreciate a sport governing body’s role in the spectator-team relationship. Also, it offers new perspectives on spectator profiles and encourages the implementation of a credibility variable when investigating relationship management in sports. Overall, the study’s holistic approach in analysing relationships and loyalty is unique in the sport marketing literature