There have been calls for sport management scholars to work towards an enhanced understanding of how sport can promote social good (Chalip, 2006; Zeigler, 2007). One way to accomplish this is to examine the benefits of sport participation available to both individuals and society as a whole. Developing an understanding of the benefits of sport participation is of clear interest to practitioners, scholars and governments (Nicholson, Hoye & Houlihan, 2011). It is argued here that examining the way in which benefits of participant-based sport are perceived ought to be a focus of sport scholars. An instrument designed to measure the importance that both sport participants and non-sport participants place on the physical, sociological and psychological benefits that are potentially attainable through sport participation is therefore incorporated in the research. The instrument measures a multi-dimensional construct which is conceptualized as an instrumental attitude and fit into a larger sport participation behavioral model. The importance of the construct is based on the rationale that attitudes about the potential benefits of sports should affect the future probability of engaging in sporting activity (Shoham & Rose, 2000). The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) serves as the conceptual framework for this investigation. The research also includes multi-dimensional motivational profiles developed in line with self-determination theory. The research topic is significant because North American citizens are increasingly inactive (Jones, Sinclair, Rhodes & Courneya, 2004), and marketing efforts related to sport participation have not generally been successful (Graham & Graham, 2008). The research is consistent with a social marketing perspective because of its focus on benefits to individuals and society. The objective of this research is to contribute to an enhanced understanding of the underlying psychological processes associated with sport participation. Results of the study provide evidence supporting the reconceptualized instrumental attitude construct and selected paths within a TPB framework. Managerial implications and ideas for future research are provided in the concluding chapter of this document. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / October 3, 2011. / Attitude, Benefits, Participation, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffery James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert Eklund, University Representative; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Y. K. Kim, Committee Member.

Consumer goodwill is one of the unique effects differentiating sponsorship from other marketing activities (Meenaghan, 2001a; 2001b). While other marketing communications tend to be labeled as selfish (Meenaghan, 2001a; 2001b), designed merely to pursue advantages for a company, sponsorship is recognized as a "good thing to do" (McDonald, 1999). People approve of and generate positive attitudes toward sponsorship, believing it to be one of the activities through which businesses contribute to society (Meenaghan, 2001a; 2001b). Throughout the current study the idea of the process of goodwill generation and goodwill effect was assessed based on the emotion of gratitude, utilizing the application of appraisal theory. This theory focuses on a role of emotion. The theory's central theme is that emotion is derived from individuals' subjective evaluations/appraisals of a stimulus (Scherer, 1999) or implications of a situation (Smith & Kirby, 2009). The emotions elicited through appraisal processes lead to behavioral responses (Frijda, 1986; Johnson & Stewart, 2005; Smith & Lazarus, 1990). The current study included measures of the emotion of gratitude in order to understand how consumers' appreciation toward a sponsor works in the effectiveness of spectator sports sponsorship. Two issues were addressed in this study. The first issue dealt with whether a sponsor is able to influence consumers' perceptions in order to enhance consumers' sense of appreciation for a sponsor. Specifically, an effort was made to address the effect of information transmission concerning a sponsor's investment in a sponsored property (i.e., no information about a sponsor's investment, information about a sponsor's monetary support, and information about a sponsor's non-monetary support) on consumers' perceptions. The MANOVA and MANCOVA results indicated that having access to the information concerning a sponsor's investment influenced participants' perceptions about the sponsorship being beneficial to the property and the sponsor having commercial intent. The information, on the other hand, did not influence participants' perceptions about the sponsorship being a necessity for the property nor the sponsor being concerned about the property. Specifically, participants receiving information about a sponsor's monetary support perceived the sponsorship as more beneficial than participants receiving no information. For commercial intent, participants receiving no information about a sponsor's support perceived the sponsor having more commercial intent than participants receiving information about the sponsor's non-monetary support. The second issue involved how gratitude operates in relation to sponsorship. Based on appraisal theory, relationships among perceptions toward sponsorship, gratitude, and attitudinal and behavioral outcome variables, were hypothesized. The results from Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) indicated that perceived benefit, perceived necessity, and perceived commercial intent predicted gratitude, while perceived concern did not predict gratitude. Gratitude did predict attitude toward a sponsor, while gratitude did not influence purchase intent. Attitude toward a sponsor also did not influence purchase intent. Gratitude was found to partially mediate the influence of perceived benefit and perceived commercial intent on attitude toward a sponsor. Additionally, gratitude fully mediated the influence of perceived necessity on attitude toward a sponsor. The results from the current study confirmed a partial effect of gratitude, providing managers with potential justification for the use of sponsorship in spectator sports, as well as leading the research to offer suggestions to enhance consumers' emotion of gratitude toward a sponsor. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 19, 2012. / Appraisal theory, Goodwill, Gratitude, Sponsorship, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert C. Eklund, University Representative; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

Statistical theories have long been the impetus for research within studies of sport. This is likely due to the abundance of data in sport. This thesis introduces a statistical theory known as Simpson's Paradox wherein an apparent correlation of variables is reversed when the variables are combined. Simpson's Paradox has been the focus of studies involving sports such as basketball and baseball due to the strong presence of statistics in each respective sport. Building on the previous research, this thesis examines the prevalence of Simpson's Paradox in professional tennis. Overtly, this thesis attempts to identify tennis matches from specified tournaments where cases of Simpson's Paradox are present. A match is considered an instance of Simpson's Paradox when a player wins more points than his opponent but loses the overall match. Data from sanctioned tennis tournaments over the course of 21 years will be used to investigate cases of Simpson's Paradox on the point level. Finding instances of Simpson's Paradox within the data set may provide insight to incentives and strategy in tennis. Specifically, a player may exert less effort in select situations such as returning serve if he believes he will have a better chance of winning the overall set or match. Analyzing a data set of over 55,000 individual tennis matches, I find that roughly 5% of matches exhibit Simpson's Paradox. The results provide an opportunity for gambling related activity to profit from the unique scoring system utilized in tennis. Governing bodies need to be aware of betting-related corruption that has become increasingly popular in sports in order to protect and maintain the integrity of tennis. While (sub)-conscious incentive effects may explain instances of Simpson's Paradox, the unique best of N nature of tennis' scoring system primarily drives my results. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 28, 2012. / Best of N, Gambling, Governing Bodies, Simpson's Paradox, Tennis / Includes bibliographical references. / Ryan Rodenberg, Professor Directing Thesis; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

Historically, sports have generally been divided into a binary system of males and females for purposes of competition. Yet this system does not allow for the spectrum of sexual differences that can occur both physically and mentally. Such individuals include transgender or intersex. Transgender and intersex individuals are not unknown to the sporting world. These individuals have won major sporting titles from amateur awards to Olympic medals. Despite the athletic prowess some have expressed, these individuals are neither guaranteed inclusion into all sporting competitions nor given statutory rights that provide for such inclusion. The potential to include transgender and intersex individuals at the U.S. collegiate level is the focus of this proposal. There have only been a couple known transgender student-athletes who have competed in the NCAA and none of these student-athletes have yet to challenge or seek out their right to compete in intercollegiate athletics under Title IX. This study analyzes the legal perspective on the eligibility of transgender and intersex student-athletes through hypothetical legal cases. It would not be practical to wait five to twenty years for such a case to manifest in the court system. Although the case would be on-point, legal scholarship does not have the luxury of waiting for a case to present itself. Instead one must use the available precedents to interpret the law. Law is a type of social science, yet it is devoid of experimentation and statistical methodology. Instead, legal methodology surveys cases and legal precedents rather than people or businesses. Describing and explaining what the law is and states is easy but it is more difficult to explain what the law could or should be. This thesis takes a proactive look at transgender and intersex student-athlete's inclusion under the auspices of Title IX. Title IX is the federal legislation that is the most influential in collegiate sports. Title IX's policies and interpretations are the primary focus in this thesis. In addition, the multiple legal precedents that have developed because of Title IX are addressed. Title IX has been the stimulus for female's inclusion into intercollegiate sports. Despite the historical context, Title VII and Title IX's scope has broadened beyond just females in the past couple decades due to an expanded definition of the term "sex." The other major factor in this proposal is the NCAA, which is the main governing body for intercollegiate athletic programs. The purpose of the NCAA and the binary system in athletics is largely to maintain an "equal playing field." It is believed by some that the inclusion of a transgender or intersex student-athlete may alter the playing field, thereby creating an imbalance. It is important to point out that no such thing as an even playing field exists, or else there would not be competition. Differences in culture, finances, genetics, and a myriad of other factors affect the development of an individual and the team; already creating an uneven playing field. The NCAA in the past couple months has published official rules regarding the eligibility for transgender student-athletes. Yet, the NCAA remains silent on intersex student- athlete participation. This small population is therefore left in a state of limbo in regards to intercollegiate eligibility. A transgender student-athlete's gender status can vary depending on the state one lives in. Certain states in the US protect gender identity and allow alterations of one's legal sex status. These states allow protection that federal statutes have yet to cover. In contrast, most states do not recognize gender identity nor allow any changes to one's legal sex status. The difference in state regulations is a consideration transgender student-athletes need to consider before filing a Title IX claim. Title IX protects sex discrimination and thus the underrepresented sex. Intersex student-athletes do not lack `sex' and as thus should be under the auspices of Title IX. Intersex is not male or female thus intersexuality could be considered an underrepresented sex. Females may have been the original beneficiaries of Title IX but intersex students could be the new underrepresented class. The broad definition of "sex" from current transgender case law shows that "sex" is not legally bound to the binary construct of male or female. Thus, Title IX would include protection for those with different gender identities, transsexuals, and intersex student-athletes. Recent athletic sensations and governing body guidelines have expressed interest and questions regarding transgender and intersex eligibility. Inclusion of these individuals can be strengthened by successful litigation through Title IX. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2011. / November 7, 2011. / Intersex student-athletes, Title IX, Transgender student-athletes / Includes bibliographical references. / Ryan Rodenberg, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

The early retirement of iconic Chinese basketball player Yao Ming came as a shock to fans in both China and United States. The end of the "Ming Dynasty" in the NBA brought about a number of discussions on his contribution and impact to the two countries with his dramatic, if not groundbreaking, nine-year NBA career. His high-profile migration to the United States, under the banner of being selected the No. 1 draft pick, quickly made him perhaps the most recognizable Chinese face to the world. More importantly, he opened a door to bring the NBA to the world's most populous market with more than 1.3 billion people. But the impact brought by Yao Ming goes far beyond the basketball court; Yao was born in a very unique historical period, in the age of globalization when free-market policies and economics have come to organize the international distribution of capital and culture. In China, the communist government has greatly benefited from free-market capitalism reforming and opening-up economic policy, and energetically disseminating its power and influence to the world (e.g. Beijing 2008 Olympics). The rise of China simultaneously confronts the interest of U.S. political and economic hegemony while the mutual economic desire consequently leads to a relationship of both competitor and partner between these two giants. Considering the flexible and transnational image of Yao Ming and his symbolic status in the two societies, this thesis takes Yao Ming as an epitome of the U.S.-China relations--culturally, economically and politically--to analyze the bridge-building role he has created between the West and the East, the celebrity economic effects he has generated as a global sports icon, and the far-reaching influence in a historical period he has brought to the development of Sino-American relations. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 19, 2012. / Cultural politics, Globalization, neoliberalism, U.S.-China Relations, Yao Ming / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Giardina, Professor Directing Thesis; Joshua Newman, Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member.

The contribution of the professional sports stadium to the American city has long been debated by team owners, elected officials, scholars, activists, fans, sportswriters, and ordinary citizens. This debate intensifies whenever the possibility of publicly funding a stadium's construction or renovation is raised. Traditionally, the question of public investment has been decided by voters via the tools of direct democracy, including the referendum and initiative. However, since 2005, 24 stadium projects have been allocated over $8.5 billion of public funds without any form of voter approval. The practice of allocating public funds toward a project without direct public consent is referred to as the no-vote subsidy. Left without the evidence of ballot results or poll numbers, policymakers can suppose the will of the people at large to match their own preferences. Civil servants and citizens alike must consider the consequences of policies that are--at least in perception and sometimes in reality--unreflective of the electorate's preferences. One of the most recent instances of the no-vote subsidy occurred in Columbus, Ohio, where county commissioners and city councilmembers approved the purchase of the city's downtown arena using tax revenues generated from a local casino. Though this subsidy was made without a public vote, Columbus residents had already set a precedent by opposing five stadium-financing issues over 35 years. In this study, I considered the impact of this financing plan from the perspectives of both policymakers and the citizenry. There were three broad purposes of this study: to understand the political rationale of public policymakers involved in this specific case of a no-vote subsidy; to identify the factors that contribute to citizens regarding a subsidy favorably or unfavorably; and to examine the public response to the no-vote subsidy. This study was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, standardized, open-ended interviews were conducted in-person with seven individuals having personal connections to the Columbus stadium-financing case. These policymakers acknowledged the possibility that their decision to purchase the arena contradicted the public will. This admission was reconciled by a belief in a form of democratic representation known as civic paternalism, in which policymakers rely on their own expertise and point to their beliefs that such policies serve the best interests of the entire community, including individual citizens, the local economy, and the city's overall image. Additionally, civically paternalistic policymakers who make such decisions are either (1) willing to accept the accompanying political fallout or (2) confident that their actions will not negatively impact their future political career. In the second phase of the study, a survey was developed to measure the attitudes of Columbus residents toward a number of individuals, groups, and institutions, including civil servants, policy benefactors, and the democratic process in general. A pilot survey of 158 central Ohio residents was used to examine the psychometric properties of the initial instrument. Upon item modification, insertion, and deletion, a 55-item survey was finalized for the principal analysis. From a pool of over 625,000 registered voters in Franklin County, 5,000 individuals were randomly selected and received a survey packet. A total of 401 usable surveys were returned and included in the principal study analysis. The results of structural model testing provided support for six of 11 hypotheses. Two additional hypotheses received partial support, two were left unsupported, and one was not examined. Both perceived arena impact and trust in civically paternalistic leadership were significant predictors of one's attitude toward the public-financing plan. In turn, this attitude toward the financing deal impacted attitudes toward the arena's primary tenant, policymakers associated with the plan, and the democratic process in general. The results of this study indicated that though ultimately immaterial in the public-financing decision, public perception of the deal was not inconsequential. Data analysis also showed that how voters felt about the stadium-financing agreement influenced their attitudes toward the arena's primary tenant, democratic decision-making, and local policymakers. In this particular case, it was also suggested a slight public majority of the public approved of the financing plan. The no-vote subsidy is an increasingly common means of public-stadium financing that has failed to capture the attention of scholars. The research questions proposed and subsequently answered were an initial attempt to consider the sociopolitical implications of the no-vote subsidy. Future efforts to study civic paternalism and the no-vote subsidy should come from many directions and rely on a variety of methodologies. Such diverse approaches are necessary if the controversies surrounding public-stadium finance and the American democracy are to be studied in earnest. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 18, 2013. / democratic theory, public policymaking, sport management, stadium finance, urban planning, voter behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald R. Ferris, University Representative; Timothy S. Chapin, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

Soccer (also referred to as football) is considered the world's most popular sport. (Dunning, 1999; Economist, 2005; Mueller, Guttmann, 1993; Cantu & Vancamp, 1996). Across the globe, over 400 million men, women and children watch and play soccer in over 200 countries (Jensen, 2011). Even in the United States, where the professional game is often marginalized, youth soccer records equally high participation rates for both boys and girls (Sabo, 2008). Although participation in soccer generally decreases with age at a higher rate relative to other team sports, the trend is slower among women (National Sporting Goods Association, 2011), which some scholars have referred to as the `feminization of soccer' (Andrews, 1997; Sugden, 1994). Cultural milestones such as the institution of Title IX in 1972, the short-lived Women's United Soccer Association and Women's Professional Soccer leagues, and the increased visibility of the Women's World Cup have contributed to this phenomenon. While there is ample research on cultural discourses relating to class, gender and ideologies that are reproduced on and around the youth soccer field (Swanson, 2009), and likewise on forms of social capital, disciplined bodies, work ethic and middle-class family values that are embodied therein (Andrews, 1997; Swanson, 2009), there is less research surrounding adult participation in soccer and the cultural representations it enacts, embodies, and reproduces. At the adult level, coed soccer recreational soccer leagues are a relatively recent trend (Henry & Comeaux, 1999). In comparison to youth and even adolescent soccer leagues, among adult soccer players there is typically a larger imbalance in the number of men and women participating (National Sporting Goods Association, 2001). According to the United States Adult Soccer Association (USASA), the national governing board for adult soccer leagues, of the organizations 251,000 members approximately 25 percent are women (S. Schroedl, personal communication, January 5, 2013).This statistic suggests lower participation rates in soccer among adult women as opposed to adult men on a macro scale. On a micro scale, this is the case for the South City Soccer Association (SCSA) - an adult recreational soccer league located in a midsize southeastern town in the United States. SCSA is the case on which this study is focused. To best understand the current state of coed adult recreational soccer and the state of SCSA, it is important to begin with a contextual background of adult recreational soccer on the national level in general and also one specific to the league's 30-year history. Employing qualitative methodologies in the form of participant-observation, interviews with past and present players, and self-reflexivity, I explore the socio-cultural challenges of `managing' coed soccer. Expanding upon the work of Henry and Comeaux (1999), I deconstruct a widely accepted system of coed soccer. With a focus on gender, power relations, and barriers to participation, I investigate underlying cultural themes such as the social construction of space, identities, and practices. My study follows Giardina and Newman (2011), who call for a form of Physical Cultural Studies (PCS) in which the researcher physically immerses herself in the field and collaborates with participants to produce a rich account filled with multiple voices and perspectives. I build upon PCS with a feminist version, one that is grounded in a feminist standpoint epistemology. As an adult female soccer player-researcher in the league, I incorporate self-reflexivity (Carrington, 2008) in an effort to unearth the silent but powerful systems at work in this space of physicality. My project attempts to understand why adult women are underrepresented in the adult league and assist sport managers of such leagues in increasing its female membership. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. / Spring Semester, 2013. / February 18, 2013. / Cultural Studies, Gender, Power, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael D. Giardina, Professor Directing Dissertation; Donna M. Nudd, University Representative; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member.

Among National Football League (NFL) fans, coaches, and analysts, there are many different views on how time-off effects team performance. Differences in how time-off is allocated to teams has also become a source of controversy as debates continue regarding which teams received the least favorable schedules. This investigation was concerned with identifying how time-off prior to a game affects the final score, when is the best time to have a bye week, and why some teams may benefit more from time-off than other teams. Twenty-one seasons were examined using ordinary least squares regressions to determine that there is at least about a .21 point advantage for each extra day of preparation time that a team receives prior to a game, relative to the time received by an opponent. This advantage is increased for older teams, less talented teams, and teams that are less familiar with their opponents. Unfamiliar opponents benefit from an additional day to prepare by about .38 points which accounts for approximately 2.6 points for a standard seven day bye week. Additionally, about 54.9 percent of teams defeat their opponents when coming off of a bye week by an average margin of victory of about 12.3 points compared to the approximately 8.7 points that non-bye week teams defeated bye week teams by on average. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 17, 2013. / bye, inequity, NFL, performance, rest, schedule / Includes bibliographical references. / Ryan Rodenberg, Professor Directing Thesis; Joshua Newman, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

This is a study of the of Kiwi cultural identity as performed in and through American rugby. Drawing on the theories of Stuart Hall, Judith Butler and Sara Ahmed I look at how my New Zealand cultural identity and rugby playing body was (re)produced by myself and my teammates and coaches at the South City "Raiders" Rugby Football Club (SCRFC). The data for this study comes from my participant observation in SCRFC as a player for six months, during which I kept autoethnograpic field notes and conducted semi-structured conversational interviews. I discuss how my cultural identity project in this rugby space was primarily embodied and performed and that this resulted in pain playing a central part in my experiences. In this respect, what began as a study of cultural identity became a study of pain in the service of cultural identity. This leads me to theoretically explore pain as an empirical construct, arguing that pain must be considered both as a product and producer of cultural identities. As such I move to question Hall's predominantly discursive understanding of identity arguing that we need to move beyond textual reductionism to study cultural identities as subject to biological, affective and material (re)production, (re)constitution, and negotiation. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / April 1, 2013. / Cultural Citizenship, Cultural Identity, Intersubjectivity, Pain, Performativity, Rugby / Includes bibliographical references. / Joshua Newman, Professor Directing Thesis; Jeffery James, Committee Member; Michael Giardina, Committee Member.

This research looks to extend beyond the sports economic theory to present a cultural economic conception of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). Utilizing the theory of "spectacle" put forward by Guy Debord I conducted a critical discourse analysis of season one of the UFC's subsidiary realty TV show The Ultimate Fighter. Results indicated a specific construction with regard to the fighter-contestant identity as a member of the lower/working class and, as such, the positioning of the UFC as an emancipatory institution. Such construction is interpreted as creating cultural forms that have the potential to aid in the UFC's extraction of surplus value from its labor force. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 28, 2013. / Cultural economy, Mixed Martial Arts, Reality television, Spectacle, Ultimate Fighting Championship / Includes bibliographical references. / Joshua Newman, Professor Directing Thesis; Michael Giardina, Committee Member; Jennifer Proffitt, Committee Member.