Sport organizations rely on volunteers to accomplish their missions. Volunteers are a finite resource whose supply may not keep up with the ever increasing demand (Bussell & Forbes, 2002; Cuskelly, 2004). The number of organizations dependent on volunteer workers is increasing, while the number of individuals willing to volunteer is decreasing. While recruiting volunteers is important to sport organizations, retention of volunteers may be more important in order to remain viable in the competitive arena of volunteer services. Retention of volunteers should be a priority for reasons of efficiency since organizations would save time, effort, and money they would otherwise spend on recruitment and training. To assist practitioner's efforts to retain volunteers, researchers should investigate avenues to advance our understanding of volunteer retention. Toward this end the purpose of this study was three-fold: 1) to present a conceptual model illustrating the relationship between job demands and job resources as they relate to work engagement of sport volunteers leading to sport volunteer performance, commitment, satisfaction, and retention, 2) to investigate whether there were differences in volunteer engagement based on whether individuals were volunteering to work at sporting versus non-sporting events, and 3) exploring if there were differences based on a volunteer's generational cohort. A questionnaire was constructed incorporating measurements scales drawn from the literature which were modified to be applicable to the volunteer milieu, as well as items added by the researcher to assess content for which there were no items available in the existing literature. The questionnaire was vetted by an expert panel with the final version incorporated into the study. Nine hypotheses about the relationships in the proposed model were posited. Evidence from the study was found to support eight of the nine hypotheses. Based on the evidence from the data analysis, the following conclusions were drawn: the job resource with the greatest impact on volunteer engagement was social support, followed closely by feedback and supervisor support; job demands had a negative impact on volunteer engagement. There was an inverse relationship between job demands and job resources in regard to engagement in the volunteer context; sporting event volunteers did not exhibit different levels of engagement than those volunteering with non-sporting events. Volunteers representing different generations did exhibit differing preferences in regard to job resources while volunteering. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2014. / April 10, 2014. / Engagement, Retention, Volunteers / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald R. Ferris, University Representative; Pamela L. Perrewé, Committee Member; Ryan M. Rodenberg, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to examine the leadership behaviors of coaches within the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities using the Revised Leadership Scale for Sport. A secondary purpose was to gain greater insight into the democratic and positive feedback leadership behaviors of male and female coaches in the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU). Three hundred and ninety-six head coaches in the CCCU participated in the study; 320 (80.5%) males and 76 (19.5%) females. The participants completed the Revised Leadership Scale for Sport (Zhang, J., Jensen, B.E., & Mann, B.L., 1997). The results of the study showed that there is a significant difference in the coaching behaviors (training and instruction, situational consideration, autocratic, democratic, social support, and positive feedback) of head coaches in the CCCU when comparing the sports coached. Results of the RLSS indicated that the softball and track and field coaches perceived themselves as exhibiting the highest rates of positive feedback to their athletes. Track and field and volleyball coaches exhibited the highest rates of democratic behavior in their coaching. It was also discovered that there were no significant difference between male and female coaches in the coaching dimension when evaluating the different coaching leadership behaviors by gender. Coaches that scored high and low in the positive feedback and democratic behavior categories were asked to participate in a follow up interview. Two themes emerged from the interviews with coaches when questioned about their democratic behavior: gender differences and communication with players. Two themes also emerged related to the coaches use of positive feedback: correcting mistakes and team-building. Additional information emerged from the interviews relating to how coaches in the CCCU prioritize different aspects of their job and their relationship with God. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / June 15, 2010. / Coaches, Christian, Leadership / Includes bibliographical references. / Susan Lynn, Professor Directing Dissertation; Elizabeth Jakubowski, University Representative; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Jeannine Turner, Committee Member.

The primary goal of this textual analysis was to examine narratives and descriptors sportswriters used when covering the NCAA Division I women's and men's basketball tournaments (March Madness). Drawing principally from a masculine hegemonic framework, this research examined articles published with bylines over a 26-day period in 2006 coinciding with March Madness. Articles came from The New York Times, USA Today, ESPN Internet, and CBS SportsLine. There were two parts of this methodology: a priori coding and a qualitative data analysis. First, two individuals each coded 508 articles for descriptors from nine specific categories derived from an extensive literature review. The author later wrote theoretical memos and employed the constant comparative method to search for dominant themes. Coding results contradicted the gender-specific stereotypes found in previous research and did not support the presence of masculine hegemony. Most of the articles (76.4%) focused on men's basketball. However, sportswriters used a higher average number of descriptors on physical appearances, personal relationships, and emotional weaknesses in articles about men's basketball than women's basketball. Males authored 86% of all articles. Females wrote 65% of their articles on women's basketball, but males still wrote 61% of all articles on women's basketball. Results based on the gender of sportswriters showed notions of masculine hegemony were present in the quality of writing amongst male sportswriters. Males who covered men's basketball were more likely to use descriptors on athletic prowess than females who covered either women or men. Females covering women's basketball did not uphold masculine hegemony, as they used three times as many descriptors for athletic prowess than females who covered men's basketball. Masculine hegemony was prevalent in the five themes emerging from the qualitative analysis: (1) He was always on my mind; (2) She must have been a tomboy; (3) Women still don't have next; (4) The real hegemonic order in media coverage of college sports: football, men's basketball, and then everything else; (5) Parents are newsworthy, especially athletic fathers. References to male athletes were commonplace in stories on women's basketball, but no male athlete in any men's basketball article was compared to a female athlete. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2006. / July 10, 2006. / Communications, Sport Management, Gender Studies / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Directing Dissertation; Arthur Raney, Outside Committee Member; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; John Vincent, Committee Member.

College-level physical education programs address the demand for physical activities through the use of Instructional Physical Activity Programs (IPAPs) which are still sometimes referred to as Basic Instructional Programs (BIPs). Currently, physical education is in an emerging new stage of instruction focused on model-based instruction (Metzler, 2005). One model, Personalized System of Instruction (Keller, 1968), also known as PSI, is centered on several key features: an emphasis on the written word, the teacher acting as a motivator, the use of student self-pacing, mastery-based learning, and the use of student proctors. Within physical education settings, the use of proctors is not emphasized however the remaining key features are emphasized. Fox (2004) suggests that several key features of PSI need to be redefined for the 21st century since they are not as necessary as once perceived. The most widely mentioned key feature seen as being problematic and recommended for change is an emphasis on self-pacing since students have been shown to struggle and procrastinate when no pacing contingencies have been set for students to use (Eyre, 2007). Using a quasi-experimental mixed-method design, the purpose of this study was to investigate the use of flexible-pacing vs. self-pacing by incorporating classroom-based pacing contingencies such as instructor-recommended deadlines and student-set deadlines on students' pacing rate, course completion rate, withdrawal rate, student achievement measures (golf-skills & golf-knowledge), and attitudes. Three PSI-taught, IPAP golf course sections consisting of 22 days of a PSI unit were used. Each course section represented a different pacing condition group. The three pacing condition groups used in this study included: SP = Self-pacing only group (n = 23); IRD = Instructor-recommended deadlines group (n = 24); SSD = Student-set deadlines group (n = 24). Within each of these pacing condition groups, a sub-group based on golf-skill ability-level was created from golf-skill pre-test results to determine lower-skilled, moderate-skilled, and higher-skilled golf students. Preliminary measures taken for each pacing condition group included PSI model fidelity being met along with other preliminary measures indicating no differences among the three pacing condition groups on students' initial golf-skill and golf-knowledge, students' outside-of-class golf participation and instructor's teaching behaviors. These preliminary measures were used to conclude that any differences based on pacing rate, course completion rate, withdrawal rate, attitudes, and achievement were a result of the pacing contingencies groups and not due to other extraneous variables such as prior golf-skill or golf-knowledge, outside-of-class golf participation, instructor's teaching behaviors or due to the PSI model not being faithfully implemented. The quantitative results from this study indicated that flexible-pacing is advantageous for increasing lower- and moderate-skilled pacing rates as well as increasing students' overall perception of a PSI-taught IPAP golf course. Flexible-pacing is particularly advantageous for increasing course completion rates for lower-skilled students. However, for higher-skilled students, flexible-pacing provides little advantages. Additionally, while differences were significantly different within each pacing condition group from pre- to post-test for both golf-skill and golf-knowledge achievement measures, no differences were found among the pacing condition groups for the post-test measurement. A student attitudes survey revealed that while all three pacing condition groups rated aspects of the course very highly, the two flexible-pacing contingency groups (IRD and SSD) rated aspects of the course significantly greater than the SP group on several measures such as effectiveness of the course at increasing students' golf-skill ability and overall rating of the course. Since no students withdrew from the course, this was not tested. The qualitative results indicated several key differences between students who were able to complete all course workbook tasks versus students who were unable to complete all course workbook tasks. Themes present among students who were able to complete all tasks included: able to successfully pace themselves; learned specific skills/concepts; increased preference for course workbook; used the instructor-recommended deadlines and found them helpful; and had a motivation to learn. Themes present among students were unable to complete all course workbook tasks included: decreased ability to pace themselves; misperception of golf & no mention of learning specific golf skills/concepts; decreased preference for course workbook; thought that pacing contingencies could have helped if used; and indicated no mention of motivation or determinism. These results support the use of flexible-pacing over self-pacing in PSI-taught courses in physical education settings due to significant improvements on several key measurements especially for lower- and moderate-skilled students. However, caution should be used if pacing contingencies are to be used for higher-skilled students. Future research should continue to examine flexible-pacing with different physical education content and different age levels. / A Dissertation submitted to the School of Teacher Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2011. / March 17, 2011. / Model-Based Instruction, Personalized System of Instruction, PSI, Pacing Contingencies, Self-Pacing, Flexible-pacing, Physical Education, Instructional Model / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Ratliffe, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert Reiser, University Representative; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member.

Within the realm of sport management, team identification has been examined as single dimensional construct (Wann & Branscombe, 1993). However, research in social psychology has examined group identity as a multi-dimensional concept. To accurately measure and to more fully understand the implications of team identification, the construct should be studied as a multi-dimensional construct. This study is a first attempt to examine team identity as a multi-dimensional construct. The TEAM*ID scale was developed based on the literature review of Ashmore, Deaux, and McLaughlin-Volpe (2004), who proposed nine constructs of group identity: 1) Self categorization, 2) Public evaluation, 3) Private evaluation, 4) Importance, 5) Attachment – Interconnection of self with group, 6) Attachment – Sense of interdependence, 7) Social embeddedness, 8) Behavioral involvement, and 9) Content and meaning. The purpose of this study was to develop an instrument to measure team identity as a multi-dimensional construct. Data were collected from the fan base of a large SE college football team (N=311); confirmatory factor analysis was performed on a split sample (Sample 1=155, Sample 2=156) to examine the nine constructs of group identity. Six factors (Public evaluation, Private evaluation, Interconnection of self, Sense of interdependence, Behavioral involvement, and Awareness and knowledge) emerged from the analysis and showed a good fit of the model. A review of the scale by a panel of experts provided initial evidence of content validity; Comparing the TEAM*ID scale with a portion of the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) and a revised version of the Psychological Commitment to Team (Mahony, Madrigal, & Howard, 2000) scale provided initial evidence of nomological validity. Several factors in the model did not, however, demonstrate discriminant validity. The two attachment factors lacked discrimination, suggesting the need for further development. There were also a lack of discrimination between private evaluation, behavioral involvement and the factor awareness and knowledge of the content and meaning. The concerns with discriminant validity may be sample related, however, future refinement of the model is desirable. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2005. / June 27, 2005. / Sport Marketing, Instrument Development, Team Identity, Social Psychology, Fans / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey Dalton James, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Robert Aubrey Kent, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Sande Milton, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

On March 11, 2011, the Northeastern Area (Tohoku) of Japan experienced the largest earthquake and tsunami ever recorded in this area. Following the disasters, professional sports organizations conducted disaster relief efforts by hosting charity matches, visiting temporary housing areas (mentoring and listening to victims), creating awareness using different logos in/around the public areas, etc. These activities are considered corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. CSR has been a popular topic in the sports world, but little attention has been paid to CSR activities following natural disasters. The purpose of this research was to assess the community members' responses to sport organizations based on CSR initiatives after a natural disaster. The nature of this research was exploratory; interviews were conducted with individuals living in the geographic area directly impacted by the Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan in 2011. The interviewees were also involved with the relief efforts to some extent. Through this research I explored the degree to which the recipients were aware of the relief efforts, the effects, and their attitudes toward the sports organizations/players. Based on the interview responses, the relief efforts by the professional sports organizations were well known, and the activities not only enhanced the image and reputations of the organizations and players, but also improved the recipients' psychological connections (i.e. familiarity, interest, and attachment) with the organizations and/or the players. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2014. / June 19, 2014. / Corporate social responsibility, Natural disaster, Relief effort, Sport management / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Thesis; Joshua Newman, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

Includes abstract. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 66-73). / In an attempt to facilitate the recovery of th eplayers, the support staff associated with teams have used a variety of techniques with the goal of ensuring that the muscles of players have the best opportunity to repair before the next training session/match. Several different strategies are used by support staff. These include cryotherapy, contraxt baths, nutrional intervention, compression garments, massage, active recovery and non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Ice/cold water immersion is a relatively new and popular recovery strategy derived from cryotherapy.

Includes bibliographical references. / Background: Endurance running performance is a complex interaction between training factors, exercise-induced muscle damage, and fatigue. The accuracy of prediction of running performance allows for the consideration of the effects of teleoanticipatory factors such as pacing and prior experience on performance. However, previous studies have not adequately considered the role of predicting performance outcomes before competition, and the potential influence of self-regulated pacing and prior experience on running performance. Aim: The aim of this descriptive analytical correlational study was to determine potential factors associated with the accuracy of prediction of running performance during a marathon race. Specific objectives: (a) To determine whether there were differences in training history, pacing, muscle pain and the relative perception of effort (RPE) in three identified groups that accurately predicted race time, performed faster than the predicted time, or performed slower than the predicted time; and (b) to determine if demographic characteristics, training and competition history, self-identified pacing strategy, muscle pain and the relative perception of effort (RPE) were associated with the accuracy of predicting performance during the marathon. Methods: Sixty-three healthy male and female runners were recruited through a short message service (SMS), word of mouth and at the 2013 Mandela Day marathon registration. Participants were included if they were over the age of 20 years, and were taking part in the marathon race. Participants were required to complete the marathon within the seven-hour cut-off time. Participants who had any lower limb musculoskeletal injury, medical condition or surgical intervention that prevented training for seven consecutive days in the three-month period prior to the race were excluded from the study. Participants who reported any flu-like symptoms during the two weeks preceding the race were also excluded from the study. In addition, participants with any missing race RPE or pain scores were excluded. Participants were allocated to one of three groups depending on their accuracy in predicting their final race time. A margin of two percentage points was considered as a meaningful difference in time. If the participants’ actual race time was accurate within two percentage points of their predicted race time, it was considered accurate, and those participants formed the accurate group (n = 16). Participants on either side of the two percentage points formed the fast (n = 21) and slow (n = 26) groups respectively. All participants completed an informed consent form and a medical and training questionnaire at a familiarisation session before to the race. Participants were also familiarised with the tests and procedures for collecting data during the race. During the marathon, muscle pain and relative perception of effort (RPE) were recorded at 0 km, 10 km, 21.1 km, 30 km, and 42.2 km. A short compliance questionnaire was completed when participants finished the marathon. Official race times were obtained from the Championchip® website. Muscle pain was recorded for seven days after the marathon. Participants were also asked to report when they resumed running training after the race. Results Participants in the slow group were significantly younger (p < 0.05), had faster 10 km PB times (p < 0.01), and trained at a faster pace (p < 0.01) compared to participants in the accurate and fast groups. Participants in the slow group had faster actual (p < 0.05) and predicted (p < 0.01) marathon times (p < 0.01) compared to participants in the accurate and fast groups. There was a significant positive relationship between actual and predicted marathon times (r = 0.71, p < 0.01). There were no significant differences between groups in muscle pain and RPE during the race; however there were significant main effects of time for pain (p < 0.01) and RPE (p < 0.01) during the race. Muscle pain and RPE were significantly increased at 21 km, 30 km, and 42.2 km, compared to pre-race values. There were no significant differences in post-race pain between groups, but there was a significant main effect of time (p < 0.01) as muscle pain was significantly elevated for three days after the race. This study was also unable to identify any significant demographic, training and competition history, or race factors associated with the accuracy of prediction of marathon performance. Conclusion: Linear increases in muscle pain and RPE were observed during the race in all groups. This study was unable to identify specific factors associated with the accuracy of prediction of running performance during a marathon race. However, it is possible that the slow marathon times and the low relative exercise intensity in all groups may have limited the effects of muscle pain and RPE on self-regulated pacing and performance. Future studies should have more stringent inclusion criteria to ensure runners are competing at moderate to high relative exercise intensities. In addition, future studies should carefully consider route profiles to ensure that the race profile does not potentially confound the accuracy of prediction of performance by limiting actual marathon times.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 47-57). / The purpose of this thesis was firstly to review the possible relationship between chlorine in swimming pool water and exercise induced bronchospasm, and secondly to assess whether chlorine exposure during swimming provokes EIB in well-trained swimmers with and without a history of EIB.

Background: A chronic ankle sprain injury is a condition that affects professional, amateur and social football players globally. Despite a large amount of research into the medical management of this condition, it remains one of the most frequently experienced injuries in professional football. A previous ankle sprain is a recognised risk factor for future lateral ankle sprain injury. No previous study has investigated the effects of chronic lateral ankle sprains on the cortical representation of the ankle in the brain. Aim: To determine if there are any changes in the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices of football players who have a history of recurrent ankle sprain injuries Methods: 25 professional male football players (13 previously injured, 12 noninjured) with an average age of 24.9y (+/- 4.49y) from a national first division club were recruited for the study. . All players included in the study completed an informed consent form before participation in the study and were declared fit to play by the clubs medical staff. Player demographics and training history were collected by means of a questionnaire followed by anthropometric measurements being taken. Tests used in the assessment of complex regional pain syndrome (Laterality Judgement Task recognition, two point discrimination and limb perception drawing) were used to assess for cortical representation changes in both limbs of injured players and uninjured players.