There was a time when the most powerful organizations were those linked to religion. Then that power shifted toward governmental institutions. Today, some of the most powerful entities are businesses (Cohen & Greenfield, 1997), but with power comes responsibility. According to Davis (1973), organizations that do not use power in ways that society considers responsible will tend to lose it. Hence, it is not uncommon for organizations to integrate social initiatives that attend to society's needs and demands into their operations. Taking on social initiatives is referred to as corporate social responsibility (CSR). The importance of CSR has been documented (e.g., Carroll, 1979; Turban & Greening, 1996). From a marketing perspective, CSR activities have been found to have a positive influence on consumers' patronage intentions. From a management perspective, CSR initiatives have been found to influence organizational attractiveness, organizational citizenship behaviors, and employees' attitudes. However, most scholarly work in the area of management has been of a conceptual nature and has not analyzed in depth the extent to which employees' perceptions of CSR initiatives influence important attitude-related outcomes such as organizational identification. Therefore, the researcher conducted a study that attempted to fill in this gap. Specifically, the researcher developed and empirically tested a model that examined the relationship between employees' perceptions of CSR initiatives, organizational identification, employees' attitudes toward CSR, and two behavioral variables. The study was composed of a pilot study and a main study. The results of the pilot study demonstrated that some changes needed to be made to the scale in order to improve its psychometric properties. The changes consisted of adding items and changing the wording of other items. All changes were made before the main study was conducted. Two samples were collected for the main study. The idea behind collecting two samples (sport and non-sport) was to test if the results varied by organizational context. The results led the researcher to conclude there were no significant differences among employees working for sport organizations and non-sport organizations. Regarding hypothesis testing, the results were mixed. Although the structural model provided an acceptable fit to the data, several of the hypotheses were not supported. The hypotheses that were supported provide evidence that employees' perceptions of CSR motivation have a positive impact on their organizational identification. Furthermore, organizational identification was found to be a positive predictor of organizational citizenship behaviors and personal social action. This study is an initial attempt to test the model proposed by the researcher. This study contributes to the advancement of the study of CSR and its impact on employees. Furthermore, because organizational studies are very limited within the field of sport management (Wolfe, Weick, Usher, Terborg, Poppo, Murrell, Dukerich, Crown Core, Dickson, & Jourdan, 2005), it also contributes to the advancement of such type of studies within the sport realm. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring 2012. / December 9, 2011. / Corporate social responsibility, Employees' attitudes, Employees' perceptions, Organizational Identification / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald Ferris, Committee Member; Yu Kyoum Kim, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to assess predictors of employee counterproductive work behavior (CWB) in six Major League Baseball (MLB) organizations. The effects of two individual variables (negative affectivity and positive affectivity), situational variables (distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice), and the moderating effects of team identification on CWB were examined. Full-time employees (N=301) completed questionnaires assessing team identification, individual variables, situational variables, counterproductive behaviors, and demographic questions. The results regarding the relationships with CWB were mixed. Team identification did not play a significant role as a moderator in the analysis. Negative affectivity was found to have a positive relationship with CWB; positive affectivity was found to have a negative relationship. Individuals high in positive affectivity were less engaged in CWB, whereas individuals low in positive affectivity engaged in more CWB. Counter to expectations, distributive justice was positively associated with CWB. Although the hypotheses regarding the effects of six variables on CWB were partially supported; the study of MLB employees warrants further investigations. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer 2012. / April 12, 2012. / Baseball, CWB, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Professor Directing Dissertation; Pamela Perrewe, University Representative; Shelbie Witte, Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member.

A revolution started in women's athletics with the passage of Title IX of the Education Amendment Act of 1972. The Act required all educational programs and activities to be treated on an equal basis. Now women's athletic programs had to receive the same services and benefits available to men's programs. The growth in the number of opportunities, participation level, and effects has been the subject of a great deal of research and literature since 1972. But what is the story of women's intercollegiate athletics before this revolution? In order to find this story, a phenomenological in-depth study was conducted. Five women were selected by a panel of experts in the field of women's sports and were interviewed about their experiences in intercollegiate athletics, as athletes and as professional physical education teachers, coaches, and administrators. As athletes, there were few opportunities available to them. Many of them mentioned participating in sport days or play days and three of them had extensive involvement in industrial leagues outside of the school system. As physical education teachers, all of them started intramural programs which later evolved into intercollegiate competition. They transported their athletes to games in their own vehicles, the girls bought T-shirts or played in physical education tunics. The teams were under the supervision of the women's physical education department and any funding they received came from student government organizations. For all of the women, their athletes were truly students first and athletes second. Games were played on the weekend to avoid conflict with academics. The highlight for the women involved in the study was the love of the game by their athletes. The young women were willing to do anything to play, practice whenever they could get a facility, play in inadequate facilities, and furnish their own money for uniforms and travel. Their love of the game showed in the growth of women's athletics at every school at which these women were involved. These women and others like them started a growth and desire for intercollegiate competition that led to the revolution created by Title IX. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management & Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2003. / July 30, 2003. / Athletics, Women / Includes bibliographical references. / Annie Clement, Professor Directing Dissertation; Beverly Bower, Outside Committee Member; Chuck Imwold, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

This dissertation examined the strategic management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships. In particular, the analyses were centered on the processes and practices by which the International Olympic Committee (IOC) managed Olympism through Olympic broadcasting partnerships in the digital age. Previous research has addressed the tension between the ideals and practical realization of Olympism, from which competing interpretations of Olympism as a philosophy of social reform and as a commercial brand have been proposed. An examination of the IOC's leveraging of the Olympic values within the commercial area of sponsorships has concluded that the IOC used Olympism as a commercial brand rather than a philosophy of social reform. This study further examined the tension between the ideals and practical realization of Olympism, but within the commercial area of broadcasting. A gradual shift in Olympic broadcasting has occurred with the emergence of digital media platforms, culminating in London 2012 being regarded as the first truly digital Games. This change in the 'mediascape' of sport, whereby control of content is now shared by broadcasters and consumers, has required the IOC to adjust its strategic management of their Olympic broadcasting partnerships. Accordingly, the research questions addressed in the dissertation were: (1) What are the processes and practices by which the IOC manages Olympism through its broadcasting partnerships in the digital age; (2) how does the IOC manage these processes and practices; and (3) why does the IOC manage these processes and practices in this way? To answer the research questions, a qualitative approach, based upon constructivist assumptions, was taken. A case study design was adopted, focusing on the organization of the IOC, but also considering the important role of broadcast partners in Olympic broadcasting. Data were collected from: (a) IOC documents; (b) personal written accounts from former IOC executives; (c) semi-structured interviews with a key IOC broadcasting executive, the British Broadcasting Corporation's Head of Major Events, and the IOC's former Director of Marketing and Broadcast Rights; and (d) reviews of the BBC's Sochi 2014 broadcast and the IOC's use of digital media platforms outside of Games time. These data were analyzed using a content analysis technique. The findings established that the IOC leveraged digital media platforms to execute several of its key strategies in its management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships: (a) Seeking to sustain Olympism by re-engaging the World's youth; (b) operating an access for all policy based upon achieving the widest possible reach and ensuring equitable access to the Olympic Games; (c) expanding the Olympic window (e.g., increased coverage) to enhance the Olympic broadcast; (d) seeking to transcend sport using the unique attributes of the Olympic Games; and (e) accommodating the commercial interests of their broadcast partners. The most effective strategies were those in the mutual interest of both the IOC and their broadcast partners. According to the narrative of the IOC, their raison d'être is to serve society, and their strategic management of Olympic broadcasting partnerships seeks to maximize the inspirational effects of the Olympic Games. However, a more credible claim is that the IOC's strategic management is commercially driven. Recognizing the necessity of commercial engagement for the sustainability of the Olympic Games, it is recommended that the IOC should strike a more practical balance between their social and commercial agendas. Notably, upholding of the Olympic values would bring greater credibility to the IOC's promotion and commercial leveraging of these ideals. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2015. / November 20, 2014. / broadcasting, digital media, Olympic Games, Olympism, strategy / Includes bibliographical references. / James P. Sampson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Arthur A. Raney, University Representative; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member; Michael D. Giardina, Committee Member.

In 1951, the Professional Golfer's Association (PGA) code of ethics included a passage describing the necessity for a professional golfer to uphold the sport of golf above material gains in order to serve the game, fellow golfers, the industry of golf. Coupling five years golf experience with industry knowledge and respect for fellow professionals and golfers formed the foundation for the PGA professional. Clearly, the PGA, for many years, has held a position that the professional golfer must develop a specific identity that enables him or her to uphold the role of golf professional in the eyes of the PGA and in the eyes of the golf consuming public. Beginning in 1975 at Ferris State University, the PGA, and the university, formed a partnership and curriculum to develop future PGA professionals known as the Professional Golf Management University Program. Building from the success of the Ferris State Program, the PGA expanded the PGM University program to an additional 19 institutions within the United States. Since its inception, the PGM University Program has produced hundreds of graduates and boasts a 100% job placement rate (PGA Education, 2013). Through the use of qualitative research methods (i.e., ethnography, participant observation, autoethnography, and interviews), I investigated the impact that a PGM University program has on the identity development of its students. Guided by theories of identity (Brown, 2000; Burke & Stets, 2009; Hogg & Terry, 2000; Hogg et al., 1995; Tajfel, 1974; Tajfel & Turner, 1979), the social theory of Pierre Bourdieu (1978, 1984, 1988) Ericsson and colleagues' theory of deliberate practice (1993), and theory pertaining to self-presentation (Leary, 1996), I provide a conceptual model of golf professional identity formation that is cognizant of personal histories, economic realities, and the influence of deliberate sport practice. Resulting from eighteen months of participant observation and interviews with ten students, I found that the PGM program had a distinct impact on both the role and social identities of the students, and that they formed a PGM influenced social identity prior to a PGM influenced role identity. I also found that deliberate practice was important for the group and was utilized to attain the skill level necessary to pass the Playing Ability Test (PAT); however, the use of deliberate practice tapered off after the completion of the (PAT). Emanating from the results of the project, I offer theoretical and practical implications for the study of identity, and deliberate practice. I conclude by offering future research directions and by offering an informed critique of the focal PGM program. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2015. / May 28, 2015. / Deliberate Practice, Identity, Socialization, Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael D. Giardina, Professor Directing Dissertation; K. Anders Ericsson, University Representative; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member.

There has not been a great deal of research undertaken to explore the impact of sport sponsorship on consumer behavior despite the increased use of sport sponsorship to reach various market segments. The majority of the research has focused on issues pertaining to the firms, such as the setting of sponsorship objectives or measuring sponsorship results. Therefore, the purpose of conducting this study was three-fold. The first purpose was to examine the effects of perceived brand/sport event match-up on specific cognitive and affective consumers' responses that contribute to the development of customer-based brand equity. The second purpose was to investigate variables that influence the process of perceived brand/sport event match-up. The last purpose was to examine the unique contributions of certain cognitive and affective responses to determine whether the elements of customer-based brand equity are important in explaining purchasing intention. The results revealed that the high brand/sport event match-up and low brand/sport event match-up groups differ significantly on corporate image, brand attitude, and brand awareness when considered together in a multivariate situation. In addition, the effects of the some individual independent variables on perceived brand/sport event match-up were significant. The positive effect of students' product category involvement on perceived brand/sport event match-up was not statistically significant while the positive effect of students' sport event involvement on perceived brand/sport event match-u was significant. Also, the effect of students' product category knowledge on perceived brand/sport event match-up was not statistically significant while the positive effect of students' sport event knowledge on perceived brand/sport event match-up was significant. Finally, the result of the effects of consumer-based brand equity was significant in relation to purchasing intention. There was the positive effect of corporate image, brand attitude, and correct identification of the sponsoring brands on purchasing intention. Therefore, this study pointed out the function of consumers' sport sponsorship information structures in influential response to brands. It is critical that sport sponsorship strategy becomes a function of the overall brand strategy and that it is coordinated on a corporate level so that it may contribute to the brand's overall equity and direct/indirect sales. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / July 21, 2004. / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Leisa Flynn, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member.

For decades, sport consumer behavior scholars have been interested in understanding individuals' psychological connection to sport teams. Through their efforts--including the development of concepts such as team identification--scholars have provided a foundation for subsequent research into various consumer thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors in relation to identification with or attachment to a team. However, scholars have not studied how sport consumers construct the team in regard to their psychological connection to it. Moreover, sport consumer behavior scholars have not addressed the potential fluidity and/or partiality of the sense of self one derives from supporting a team. These scholars have also often overlooked the contextual circumstances in which sport-related identities are negotiated and maintained. Collectively, the preceding shortcomings are what led me to the research I conducted in this dissertation. Given the complexity of the research aims, I conducted qualitative research with sport consumers, utilizing Syracuse University Men's Basketball as a case to study. I utilized phenomenological interviews and concept mapping to understand the meaning of team in the mind of consumers and how individuals derive a sense of self from such an entity. In conducting the research, I remained cognizant of the situational aspects of the research environment, acknowledging the temporal sensitivity of the research act. In pursuing of Research Aim 1 (i.e., to understand the meaning of "team" in team identification), I discovered that the individuals interviewed consider the coach, current and former players, fans, facility, geographic location, rivalry, and a history of success part of the "team" they identify with. I also found that the meaning of "team" varies based on its use in regard to psychological connection (i.e., identification) versus performance. Finally, I discovered that the meaning of "team" is continually changing and thus, relatively unfixed. Considering Research Aim 2 (i.e., to understand the stability and sources of identity associated with supporting the team), I discovered that the group identity of Syracuse University Men's Basketball is constructed in both a social and cultural sense, and largely influenced by history. Essentially, the sense of self individuals derive from supporting Syracuse University Men's Basketball is continually changing based on the life-world of the individuals and changes in the program; this allowed me to highlight the importance of context in studying fan identity. In addition, I discussed the enmeshed nature of group identity regarding Syracuse University Men's Basketball and Central New York. In pursuing Research Aim 3 (i.e., to understand how construction of "team" influences micro and macro consumer behavior), I found that fans, facility/location, rivalry, and history/success are all influential in thoughts and behaviors toward Syracuse University Men's Basketball, as well as the social well-being of fans. Collectively, the research I have conducted in this project allows me to contribute to the sport consumer behavior by illustrating the complex meaning of team in regard to individuals' psychological connection to sport teams. This research should be of interest to scholars and practitioners in regard to branding, targeted marketing, and consumer well-being. Future research into this area should allow scholars and practitioners to understand how the meaning of team and team-related group identities may change over time and in varied sport environments, and the influence of such on behaviors. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2015. / May 15, 2015. / attachment, consumer psychology, identity, team identification / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald R. Ferris, University Representative; Michael D. Giardina, Committee Member; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member.

The contemporary National Football League (NFL) now sits atop the zenith of American sport business, with unmatched economic growth and popularity. Its success can be measured in terms of revenues, in high television ratings, and in live attendance for its games each week. This dissertation looks into the extent to which the NFL's success--in maintaining a marketable brand image and spectacular corporeal commodity form--is attributable to its distinctive three-pronged system of player governance and punishment: mechanisms for the adjudication of off-field player behavior; mechanisms for the adjudication of on-field player behavior; and mechanisms for the adjudication of player use of proscribed substances. This study will incorporate juridical policy analysis to understand the mechanisms through which such punishment is enacted and enforced, and Foucauldian discourse analysis to disciplinary power imbedded within, and activated by, popular governance rhetoric. It is concluded herein that the NFL's success is attributed to a paradox of liberal economic governance--cartel-structured laissez-faire economic relations--and authoritarian governance of labor activity (on and off the field). / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2014. / November 10, 2014. / collective bargaining agreement, discipline, National Football League, policy, risk, spectacle / Includes bibliographical references. / Joshua I. Newman, Professor Directing Dissertation; Michael D. Giardina, Committee Member; Ryan M. Rodenberg, Committee Member.

Given the impressive growth and soaring popularity of watching live sporting events, sport organizations continue to search for ways to maintain or even improve this trend. Indeed, one significant and increasingly advocated approach--that of ensuring that sport organizations remain competitive and can sufficiently meet the demands of the sport marketplace--is a consumer-oriented paradigm. In the growing shift toward such a consumer-oriented paradigm, consumers are viewed as the most valuable assets for an organization. However, in the valuation of sport franchises, very little research has focused on or evaluated the asset value of sport consumers. Therefore, through this dissertation I conceptualize and endeavor to measure sport fan equity (SFE) in order to provide a better understanding of the evaluation of sport consumers. A three-fold study was undertaken to validate the measurement of SFE, generate the overall SFE index, and examine the hypothesized relationships between key marketing drivers and SFE. In the first study, a first-order confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess the overall factor structure and validity of the SFE model. Based on the results of the study, which was based on a sample of FSU Seminoles Baseball fans (119 = pilot test; 314 = main study), a seven-factor model consisting of (1) Customer Lifetime Value, (2) Positive Word of Mouth, (3) Learning, (4) Display of Team Affiliation, (5) Trust, (6) Commitment, and (7) Self-Connection was developed by the author. These seven factors were represented by financial, behavioral, and relationship-based components of SFE. In the second study, a Simple Additive Weighting (SAW) method was implemented to obtain a comprehensive index to evaluate the asset value of a sport consumer. Prior to the use of the SAW method, a Customer Lifetime Valuation (CLV) estimation method was employed to calculate the projected financial contribution of individual sport consumers. The average SFE of the FSU Seminole Baseball fans was estimated as 43.2 out of 100. The average SFE is the sum of the average scores of individual SFE components: financial value (8.5 out of 55.25), behavioral value (15.3 out of 22.37), and relationship value (19.4 out of 22.37). In the third study, a structural regression model, a two-step approach, was employed to examine the hypothesized relationships between key marketing drivers and SFE. The results from an empirical examination of the hypothesized model confirmed a positive and significant relationship between Value Equity and SFE, as well as between Relationship Equity and SFE, as reported in previous studies. However, Brand Equity was found to have a non-significant impact on SFE. The asset value of sport consumers surveyed as part of this dissertation provided essential criteria for estimating overall sport franchise value from the consumer's perspective. In particular, the study provides a comprehensive/simultaneous measurement of customer profitability, behavioral contributions, and psychological commitment, all of which are vital to sport practitioners' more complete and applied understanding of how to better estimate the true value of sport consumers. The results of this dissertation further advance our knowledge of the overall mechanism of SFE and also provide more research opportunities to extend the SFE literature, thereby undergirding the knowledge of SFE in the field of sport management. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2014. / July 30, 2014. / Fan Equity, Relationships, Sport Fan / Includes bibliographical references. / Yukyoum Kim, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member; Insu Paek, Committee Member.

Taekwondo (TKD) is a popular form of martial arts. The number of TKD academies has increased in the U. S., and there is intense competition among the academies. To compete in a challenging environment, a marketing mix is recognized as a key element in management of a TKD academy. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of select marketing mix variables on the satisfaction of TKD trainees and their post-purchase behavior. Questionnaires were distributed as part of the study; the questionnaires consisted of seven marketing mix variables (product, price, place, promotion, participants, process, and physical evidence), satisfaction, and post-purchasing behavior (word-of-mouth and intention to continue participation). The questionnaires were derived from preexisting instruments and developed to assess the determinants of TKD participants' satisfaction and their post-purchase behavior in relation to the marketing mix variables. A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed through convenience sampling at TKD academies located in San Diego, Oceanside, Irvine, Murrieta, California; Tampa, Florida; Duluth, Georgia; Raleigh, Fuquay-Varina, North Carolina; and Midlothian, Virginia. A total of 265 questionnaires were analyzed using statistical methods with PASW for Windows 20.0 program and Amos 18.0 program. The data analysis was included: frequency analysis for the demographic characteristics; assessment of normality, linearity, multicollinearity, and homoscedasticity for the assumption tests of multivariate analysis; computation of Cronbach's alpha coefficients and item-to-total correlations for evidence of reliability; Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient for evidence of discriminant validity; confirmatory factor analysis for evidence of construct validity; and path coefficient analysis to verify the research hypotheses. I concluded from the findings of this study that the product, promotion, participants, and process variables positively impacted trainees' satisfaction. On the other hand, price, place, and physical evidence did not impact trainees' satisfaction. Furthermore, trainees' satisfaction positively impacted their post-purchase behaviors which are intention to continue participation and word-of mouth. One implication is that TKD academy managers should continue developing the product by providing programs such as demonstration or sparring classes for adult trainees. In addition, offering social media services could be effective as a promotional tool. TKD instructors should develop physical abilities and have good personalities. Hiring interns could strengthen the fluency of TKD instruction processes. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Fall Semester, 2014. / November 4, 2014. / marketing mix, post-purchase behavior, satisfaction, Taekwondo / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Thesis; Joshua Newman, Committee Member; Amy Chan Hyung Kim, Committee Member.