Poor endothelial function can predict future cardiac events. Exercise is effective in modifying cardiovascular risk by enhancing endothelial function, although the amount necessary to see benefits is not clear. The first aim was to examine the effects of acute exercise to alter endothelial function and nitric oxide metabolites in overweight and sedentary individuals. Twenty-nine subjects were placed into 3 groups (Exercise, Inactive Control, Active Control). Sedentary and overweight subjects were assigned to the Exercise or Inactive Control Group, active normal weight individuals were assigned to the Active Control Group. The Exercise Group (N=15) came to the lab daily and had their resting blood flow, vascular resistance, conductance and peak reactive hyperemia measured in the calf. Measurements were made daily for 3 familiarization sessions and 24-hours following each of the 5 exercise sessions. The Exercise Group performed 60 minutes of cycling exercise for 5 days at 65% of their predicted maximal workload. Exercise was separated into 4 bouts of 15 minutes with 2 minutes of rest between each bout. Blood was drawn daily to determine if exercise altered plasma nitrate + nitrite concentration. These data were compared to the Inactive Control Group (N=5) who came to the lab for 6 consecutive days. The subjects in the Active Control Group (N=9) had 3 days of criterion measures to compare baseline differences with the Exercise Group. At baseline the Active Group had significantly lower mean arterial pressure and greater peak reactive hyperemia and nitric oxide metabolites than the Exercise and Inactive Control Groups. There were no significant main effects for time (5 days of exercise) or group (Exercise vs. Inactive Control) and no interaction of group vs. time. Thus, 5 days of exercise is not sufficient to alter calf vascular function or nitric oxide metabolites in sedentary overweight individuals. The second aim of this dissertation was to examine how 5 days of rest following the cessation of exercise would alter calf reactive hyperemia and nitric oxide metabolites. Following the exercise protocol, subjects were inactive for 5 consecutive days. There were no significant changes in criterion measures on any of the rest days.

Postural stability and rigidity are two of the major motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD). Falls in PD tend to happen mainly during tasks involving turning and bending motions of the upper body. Although correlations between clinical measures of postural stability and axial rigidity have been reported, the nature in which axial rigidity affects postural control mechanisms in PD remains undetermined. The purpose of this dissertation was (1) to investigate changes in control of the upper body due to aging and PD and (2) to study the impact of these changes on the interaction of posture and manual control. In two experimental series, patients with PD as well as healthy younger and healthy older controls were tested under manipulations of upper body motion and proximity to stability boundaries while standing. Overall, PD patients were able to adapt their postural strategies to changing task demands and adequately performed the required tasks without falling. Across both experiments, a lack of adaptability in pelvis-trunk coordination as well as reduced segmental ranges of motion were observed in patients with PD. Patterns of center of pressure and trunk center of motion suggested that aging alone mainly affects control of reactive forces at the foot-support surface interface, while PD patients show additional impairments in controlling the upper body. PD patients showed both increased and decreased variability in movement patterns compared to controls, undermining the traditional notion that increased variability characterizes movement pathology and equates with postural instability. The results stress the importance of incorporating analysis of three dimensional upper body motions into the study of balance impairments. The findings overall suggest that in PD changes in adaptive control of upper body motion are related to changes in postural control mechanisms.

The resource-based view of the firm (RBV) as well as the sustained competitive advantage model developed by Barney (1991) offer an approach to examining available resources and how those resources affect an organization's success and or effectiveness. Previous studies in sport management literature examined secondary data in an attempt to better understand sustained competitive advantage. This study takes the next step through interviews with program stakeholders as well as using secondary data to better understand how and why sustained competitive advantage exists in high school football. The study helps explore not only what resources influence success, but also to what extent the different resources shape program success according to the stakeholders. Eight emerging concepts were developed as resources potentially influencing program success. The resources are examined in relation to Barney's (1991) four tenets of sustained competitive advantage (value, rareness, imperfect imitability, and non-substitutability). Furthermore, the study compares three different winning programs and their use of the eight resources. While none of the identified resources satisfy all four of Barney's (1991) requirements, an argument can be made that the resources bundled together as one resource, organizational culture, lead to the programs' continued success. The results encourage further investigation of competitive sport using the RBV and sustained competitive advantage frameworks. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2004. / November 1, 2004. / High School Sport, Sustained Competitive Advantage, Organizational Culture, Resource-Based View, Competitive Sport / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Patricia Yancey Martin, Outside Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The current study is based on a review of Underwood, Bond, and Baer (2001) and Sutton, McDonald, Milne, and Cimperman (1997), which provide basic concepts of managerial factors affecting team identification. It is proposed that managerial factors can be susceptible to manipulation by managers in order to create and sustain fans' identification with a professional sport team. This study is first attempt to provide a comprehensive conceptual framework of managerial factors and to conduct an empirical analysis. The conceptual model of managerial factors affecting team identification proposed that the managerial factors were represented by twelve sub-dimensions, categorized into five primary dimensions: (1) organization, (2) attractive, (3) affiliation, (4) media, and (5) tradition. The purpose of the present study is to test whether managerial factors may indeed foster team identification. More specifically, the aim of the study is to develop a valid and reliable scale to measure managerial factors. Data were collected from college students of a large, public university located in the southeastern region of the United States (N= 578); confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on a split sample (Sample1= 289, Sample 2= 289) to examine five constructs of managerial factors. Based on the results of empirical tests, five managerial factors (organization, performance, affiliation, media, and tradition) with nine sub-dimensions emerged from the analysis and showed a good fit of the model. The analysis of the study evidences that reliability and validity were provided for the measurement. The analysis of structural model indicated that team identification was directly influenced by managerial factors. The findings of this study have contributions to not only an extension of the knowledge of team identification to the area of sport fans research, but also to practical applications for practitioners in sport industry. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2007. / June 18, 2007. / Fan Behavior, Spectator Sport, Managerial Factors, Team Identification, Sport Marketing, Sport Consumer Behavior / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lynn Panton, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Harry Kwon, Committee Member.

This study sought to examine the influence of wearing pedometers on activity levels, attitudes towards activity, and knowledge of physical activity. The participants were members of three intact 4th-grade Physical Education classes from three elementary schools in the Calhoun County School District, Calhoun County, Alabama. A simplified and modified version of the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT; McKenzie, Sallis, & Nader, 1991) was used to gather information regarding the student's physical activity levels during physical education classes. A questionnaire assessed affective traits and knowledge of physical activity. The TPB Questionnaire was designed to elicit information on: intentions, attitude, and perceived behavioral control as they relate to physical activity. The added knowledge variable consisted of two questions that related the ideas of physical activity levels and health benefits. The treatment consisted of wearing pedometers either during physical education class only or all day long. There was also a Control Group that did not wear any pedometers at all. The four week treatment period was preceded by two weeks of gathering baseline data and two weeks of post treatment observation. There were no significant differences in the physical activity levels of students wearing pedometers when compared to students without pedometers. A MANOVA revealed main effects indicating that the group wearing the pedometers all day had a significant change in perceived behavioral control scores and knowledge scores. The results are noteworthy because perceptions of behavioral control and fitness knowledge are associated with higher levels of physical activity. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2006. / February 23, 2006. / Physical Activity, Physical Education, Pedometer / Includes bibliographical references. / Charles Imwold, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gershon Tenenbaum, Outside Committee Member; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Kristi Walsdorf, Committee Member.

The importance of brand equity to a firm has been well-documented by previous literature. Brands with high equity allow a firm to charge a premium price as well as garner a larger market share in relation to competitors (Simon & Sullivan, 1993). From the consumer's perspective, previous research has failed to explain precisely how consumers perceive and become loyal to specific brands. Most of the scholarly work in this area has been conceptual in nature. Therefore, this study established a consumer-based brand equity model based on Keller's (2003) brand equity pyramid that explains how consumer perceptions influence brand resonance. The consumer-based brand equity scale was comprised of five constructs related to brand equity: brand awareness, brand associations, brand superiority, brand affect, and brand resonance. This dissertation represents one of the first attempts to operationalize Keller's pyramid. The measurement items were established based upon an extensive review of the literature and in the case of brand associations, by examining data collected from consumers by means of a qualitative elicitation. A pilot test in both the goods and services context (n = 288; n = 231) provided initial validation of the measurement items constructed in the item generation stage. More specifically, results from an exploratory factor analysis showed that brand associations was comprised of two dimensions in the goods context (attributes and benefits) and three dimensions in the services context (attributes, benefits, and service personnel). In both contexts, brand resonance was found to be comprised of two dimensions: sense of community and active engagement. Furthermore, minor item modifications were made to the other constructs of interest (brand awareness, brand superiority, brand affect) to ensure the reliability and validity of the measures. The main study included data collected from a general consumer sample (n = 787) in a mid-sized southeastern community in order to validate the consumer-based brand equity model. A two-step confirmatory factor analysis approach confirmed the adequate fit of the measurement model to the observed data in both the goods and services context. Furthermore, the results from an examination of the structural model via structural equation modeling confirmed a significant relationship between brand awareness and brand associations as posited by previous research. Brand associations were found to have a significant impact on a consumer's cognitive evaluation (brand superiority) and affective response (brand affect) to focal brands in both the goods and services context. Interestingly, brand associations were found to have an indirect relationship with consumers' behavioral intentions (brand resonance) via brand superiority and brand affect. This finding revealed that two attitudinal constructs (brand superiority and brand affect) played a crucial role in the brand association-brand resonance relationship. The results of the current study represent one of the initial steps in operationalizing Keller's (2003) consumer-based brand equity model. Managers can utilize the consumer-based brand equity model as a "measuring stick" to track the progress of their brand-building efforts. It illustrates the importance of not only brand associations but also accounting for consumers' cognitive evaluations and affective responses to the thoughts they hold on behalf of the brand. Ultimately, these two attitudinal constructs play an important role in influencing consumers' behavioral intentions toward a brand. Future research needs to test the consumer-based brand equity model with different brands in different settings to further advance our knowledge of how brands resonate with consumers. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / May 28, 2010. / Brand Affect, Brand, Brand Equity, Brand Resonance / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; J. Joseph Cronin, Jr., University Representative; Steven McClung, Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to assess the needs of sport consumers with disabilities attending live sporting events. Three research questions guided this exploratory study. The first research question sought to identify the physical and service needs of sport consumers with mobility impairments attending a live sporting event. The second research question investigated whether the needs of sport consumers with mobility impairments attending a live sporting event were being met. The third research question examined what could be done differently by a service provider in order to enhance the experience of a consumer with a mobility impairment. A grounded theory methodology was used in order to develop an understanding of the needs of people with disabilities in stadia. Through the use of focus group and in-depth interviews with six male sport consumers with mobility impairments, as well as observations at sports venues and in-depth interviews with facility personnel, an understanding of the needs of people with disabilities attending live sporting events emerged. The findings from the study suggest that it is the interaction of the physical and service needs which combine to produce a service experience that meets the needs of patrons with mobility impairments. Furthermore, the set of needs can be conceptualized as a hierarchy whereby certain needs become salient at different stages of the service delivery. The findings also indicate that a particular need may become salient when it is not met. Based on the findings of this study, venue managers should focus their efforts on identifying the salience of certain needs at different stages of the service experience in order to meet the physical and service needs of patrons with mobility impairments attending live sporting events. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2006. / March 17, 2006. / Spectator, Disability, Americans with Disabilities Act, Stadium / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joseph Cronin, Outside Committee Member; Donna Fletcher, Committee Member; Linda Schrader, Committee Member.

Volunteer service is a valuable product of our society. Increasingly, at recent sporting events, volunteers are a critical part of the overall success of the events (Williams, Dossa, & Tompkins, 1995). Today, an expectation of most sport event administrators is recruiting and retaining enough volunteers to fulfill the wide range of roles which are needed for a sport event to achieve its goals. In order to recruit and retain enough volunteers in sport events, it is important to clearly understand the demographic characteristics of volunteers, volunteer motivation and commitment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship among selected demographic characteristics (income, education and age), motivation and commitment of volunteers at a marathon running event. The specific aims of this investigation were to : (a) describe the type of individuals who participated as volunteers for a marathon running event, (b) examine the motives that were most and least important to those who participated as volunteers for a marathon running event, (c) confirm the multidimensionality of commitment (i.e., four bases of volunteer commitment) and motivation (i.e., five-factor model of volunteer motivation) among volunteers in a marathon running event, and (d) explore the relationships among the selected demographic characteristics (income, education and age), motivation and commitment among volunteers in a marathon running event. For the main purpose of the study, the measurement models for volunteer motivation and commitment and the structural model to investigate the relationships among the selected demographic characteristics (income, education and age), motivation and commitment were analyzed. The results of the measurement models showed that the proposed models of volunteer motivation and commitment were confirmed. The structural model illustrated that the paths of selected demographic characteristics (income, education and age) and volunteer commitment were statistically significant. The path of volunteer motivation and commitment was also statistically significant. In other words, the sample data clearly showed that selected demographics (income, education and age) and volunteer motivation influence volunteer commitment. The outcomes of this study will contribute not only to an extension of the knowledge base of volunteerism in the field of sport management, but also to practical applications for volunteer coordinators, administrators and event marketers. The directions for future research are presented. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2007. / June 29, 2007. / Sport Volunteerism, Volunteer Motivation, Volunteer Commitment, Sport Event, Marathon / Includes bibliographical references. / Jerome Quarterman, Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Andy Rudd, Committee Member.

According to Bhat and Reedy (1998), consumers' essential needs can be categorized as either symbolic or functional. The self-concept/product-image congruity model is based on the premise that consumers try to satisfy symbolic needs as part of their consumption situation. In addition to evaluating a brand based on symbolic needs, consumers may evaluate a brand based on functional needs. In an attempt to satisfy functional needs, consumers may choose a brand based on perceived functional or utilitarian aspects of a brand. The focus of the current study was to test and compare three existing models integrating both self-concept/product-image congruity and functional congruity, and to determine which is most predictive of consumers' brand preferences across different product categories in the context of ski equipments. Data were collected from collegiate skiers who are affiliated with Korean University Ski Team Association (n=299). The findings in the current study provide three propositions. First, for a convenience product, the Model C, which assumed that there were no direct effects of self-concept/product-image congruity on brand preference; only indirect effects exist through functional congruity, was selected as the most representative model in the current data set. More specifically, self-concept/product-image congruity is not a significant predictor of brand preference. In addition, the impact of functional congruity on brand preference is significant but very small. Second, for a shopping product, Model B, which suggests that self-concept/product-image congruity has both a direct effect on brand preference and an indirect effect through functional congruity was selected as the most representative model. Even though both self-concept/product-image congruity and functional congruity have significant impact on brand preference, self-concept/product-image congruity is a stronger predictor of brand preference than functional congruity for a shopping product. Third, for a specialty product, Model B was also selected as the most representative model. Both self-concept/product-image congruity and functional congruity are significant predictors of brand preference. However, self-concept/product-image congruity is a more significant predictor of brand preference for a specialty product in the current study. From a marketing perspective, the results indicated that it is critical to establish different marketing strategies depending upon product categories. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2006. / November 8, 2006. / Self-Concept, Brand Preference / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Leisa Flynn, Outside Committee Member; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Joohyun Lee, Committee Member.

Attitudes are involved in every aspect of an organizational life. Employees have attitudes about hundreds of things, including their pay, promotion opportunities, their supervisors, top management, the work they do, and their co-workers. An attitude is a hypothetical construct; it is not real and it cannot be touched, seen, etc, thus it has to be inferred by what an individual says or does. The comprehensive and productive way of analyzing how sport management faculty feel about their job is through the use of attitude surveys. Some of the most important attitudes within any organization are attitudes related to job satisfaction. High job satisfaction contributes to job involvement, organizational commitment, greater quality of life and improved mental and physical health. However, job dissatisfaction contributes to turnover, absenteeism, labor grievances, labor problems, attempts to organize labor unions and a negative organizational climate. There is a dearth of empirical investigation within the field of sport management addressing job satisfaction. The purpose of this study was to determine sport management faculty members' job satisfaction using the pay and promotion facets of the Job Descriptive Index and the Job in General Scale. Since this study was exploratory, all of the sport management faculty within the United States were chosen. Utilizing Cawley's (2000) list of sport management programs in the U.S., a survey was mailed to 234 sport management faculty which also included a demographic section. There were 171 usable surveys, yielding a 73% return rate. A t-test was used to determine mean differences between institution type, gender and tenure status and satisfaction of job in general; institution type, gender and tenure status and pay satisfaction; institution type, gender and tenure status and promotion satisfaction. Differences were found between the following: institution type concerning satisfaction of job in general, t=-3.339, (p=.001); male and female faculty concerning satisfaction of job in general, t=-3.407, (p=.001); tenure and non-tenured concerning satisfaction of job in general, t=.635, (p=.526); male and female faculty and pay satisfaction, t=-2.895, (p=.004); institution type and pay satisfaction, t=-4.641, (p=.000); tenure and non-tenured concerning pay satisfaction, t=1.245, p=.215; institution type iv concerning promotion satisfaction, t=-1.575, (p=.117); male and female faculty concerning promotion satisfaction, t=-.435, (p=.665); tenure and non-tenured concerning promotion satisfaction, t=1.029, (p=.305). The findings of this study will help sport management as a field to examine its strengths and weaknesses; as well as understand the faculty and their level of satisfaction of job in general, pay satisfaction and promotion satisfaction. Future studies are recommended for investigating the other facets of the Job Descriptive Index (i.e. supervisors, co-workers and work itself) and sport management faculty. It is also recommended for an international study of sport management faculty and their level of pay and promotion satisfaction. v BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Chevelle Hall was born in 1974 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. She was primarily raised in Boca Raton, Florida. In 1992, she graduated from Boca Raton High School. After high school, she went to Florida A&M University, where she earned a bachelor's of science degree in psychology. Shortly, thereafter, she earned a master's degree in educational counseling. In 1999, Chevelle began a doctorate of philosophy degree in sport management at the Florida State University. As a student, Ms. Hall presented at the Florida Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (FAHPERD) conference in the Fall of 2002 and the Fall of 2003. Chevelle presented at the Southern District Association (SDAHPERD) convention in the Spring of 2003. She was also selected to do a poster presentation for the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) for Spring 2004. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2003. / November 12, 2003. / Job Satisfaction, Sport Management / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Susan Losh, Outside Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member; Charles Imwold, Committee Member.