Indirect ecological effects such as associational resistance and resource competition have the potential to affect ecological interactions and influence the structure of ecological communities. Although resource competition is commonly studied, the effects of associational resistance are not as evident if studies are not designed to detect them. Additionally, the relative strengths of different ecological mechanisms ought to be measured in studies, rather than the strength of singular mechanisms. This permits proper attribution of causes and effects in community structure and detection of higher order interactions in a way that naïve reductionism will not. In a series of experiments, I looked at the effects of large-scale addition and removal of Borrichia frutescens on associational resistance of Iva frutescens to the gallformer Asphondylia borrichiae in order to test the mechanism and strength of associational resistance in the system. Additionally, I measured the effects of relative host abundance and interpatch distance of hosts on associational resistance. Finally, I looked at the effect of the presence of stemborers competing with the gall former for host plant resources on parasitism rate and parasitoid guild composition. I found evidence for a strong effect of associational resistance by natural enemies over short distances, although the phenomenon is likely of minor importance in comparison to other factors known to affect gall former population density, such as environmental effects and host plant genotype. Competitors also had a weak effect, reducing mean gall diameter, but not significantly altering total parasitism rate. However, the presence of stemborer competitors did slightly alter the composition of the parasitoid guild. In sum, both associational resistance and competition from stemborers have detectable effects on A. borrichiae, albeit weak ones. Environmental factors, such as soil nitrogen content, are likely much stronger determinants of gall former population size.

Host recognition behaviour of two braconid larval parasitoids Cotesia sesamiae and Cotesia flavipes was studied using suitable stemborer hosts [i.e. Busseola fusca for C. sesamiae, and Chilo partellus for C. flavipes] and one non-host [Eldana saccharina]. The wasps displayed similar sequences of behavioural steps when locating their hosts largely depending on their antennae for host recognition and both antennae and tarsi for final host acceptance and oviposition. Tactile and contact chemoreception stimuli from the hosts seem to play a major role in oviposition decision by the parasitoids. In addition, the external morphology and distribution pattern of sensilla present on antennae, tarsi and ovipositor of the parasitoids were examined by scanning electron and optic microscopy after staining with silver nitrate. Three sensillar types were identified on the distal antennomeres: (i) non-porous sensilla trichoidea most probably involved in mechanoreception, (ii) uniporous sensilla chaetica likely to be gustatory and, (iii) multiporous sensilla placodea likely to be olfactory. The tarsi possess a few sensilla chaetica which could be gustatory while the manubrium is likely to be used in detection of vibrations. The distal end of the ovipositor bears numerous multiporous dome-shaped sensilla. Additionally, the ability of the wasps to discriminate between contact cues was studied. When host larvae were washed in distilled water the wasps did not insert their ovipositors. However, ovipositor insertion resumed when washed host or non-host larvae were painted with water extracts of their respective host larvae. The water extracts of the suitable hosts were more attractive to the wasps than those of non-hosts. Similarly, the frass is important in host recognition during short-range examination as those of respective hosts are more intensely antennated than of non-hosts. The parasitoids were able to discriminate the regurgitant of E. saccharina by not antennating the cotton wool ball of this host; while the regurgitant of B. fusca and C. partellus appeared not useful in discriminating between the two species for both parasitoid species. Further analysis suggests the presence of a protein(s) component(s) in the regurgitant possibly responsible for host recognition and oviposition by C. flavipes. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Environmental Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Host recognition behaviour of two braconid larval parasitoids Cotesia sesamiae and Cotesia flavipes was studied using suitable stemborer hosts [i.e. Busseola fusca for C. sesamiae, and Chilo partellus for C. flavipes] and one non-host [Eldana saccharina]. The wasps displayed similar sequences of behavioural steps when locating their hosts largely depending on their antennae for host recognition and both antennae and tarsi for final host acceptance and oviposition. Tactile and contact chemoreception stimuli from the hosts seem to play a major role in oviposition decision by the parasitoids. In addition, the external morphology and distribution pattern of sensilla present on antennae, tarsi and ovipositor of the parasitoids were examined by scanning electron and optic microscopy after staining with silver nitrate. Three sensillar types were identified on the distal antennomeres: (i) non-porous sensilla trichoidea most probably involved in mechanoreception, (ii) uniporous sensilla chaetica likely to be gustatory and, (iii) multiporous sensilla placodea likely to be olfactory. The tarsi possess a few sensilla chaetica which could be gustatory while the manubrium is likely to be used in detection of vibrations. The distal end of the ovipositor bears numerous multiporous dome-shaped sensilla. Additionally, the ability of the wasps to discriminate between contact cues was studied. When host larvae were washed in distilled water the wasps did not insert their ovipositors. However, ovipositor insertion resumed when washed host or non-host larvae were painted with water extracts of their respective host larvae. The water extracts of the suitable hosts were more attractive to the wasps than those of non-hosts. Similarly, the frass is important in host recognition during short-range examination as those of respective hosts are more intensely antennated than of non-hosts. The parasitoids were able to discriminate the regurgitant of E. saccharina by not antennating the cotton wool ball of this host; while the regurgitant of B. fusca and C. partellus appeared not useful in discriminating between the two species for both parasitoid species. Further analysis suggests the presence of a protein(s) component(s) in the regurgitant possibly responsible for host recognition and oviposition by C. flavipes. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Environmental Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

La canne à sucre (Saccharum officinarum) est cultivée dans plus de 100 pays, dans le monde entier avec une production totale moyenne de 170 millions de tonnes de sucre qui a un impact économique profond sur les questions sociales et gouvernementales. En ce qui concerne les problèmes phytosanitaires, il existe un ensemble de maladies et de ravageurs qui réduisent la productivité de la canne à sucre, y compris les Lépidoptères foreurs des tiges qui causent des dégâts et pertes importantes, ce qui est le cas au Panama, contexte de cette thèse. Ce travail décrit la bioécologie des foreurs au Panama, ainsi que l'utilisation de différentes pratiques agricoles pour réduire les infestations de ces ravageurs. La thèse est divisée en six objectifs spécifiques qui constituent 8 chapitres différents. Après avoir présenté le contexte général (chapitre 1), le premier objectif était de faire un état de l’art des résultats obtenus en lutte intégrée contre les foreurs de la canne à sucre Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Cambridae), Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) et Telchin licus (Drury) (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) en Amérique qui compile 221 références de 1933 à 2017 (chapitre 2). Le deuxième objectif était d'identifier les principales espèces de Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Cambridae). Cette recherche a utilisé la morphologie externe et les organes génitaux, par comparaison avec ceux de l’espèce connue Diatraea saccharalis et a permis de confirmer que Diatraea tabernella Dyar était la principale espèce de foreur au Panama (chapitre 3). Le troisième objectif était de déterminer l'entomofaune associée aux foreurs, en utilisant différents systèmes de piégeage. Une cohorte d'arthropodes a été identifiée comme étant à la fois des ravageurs, des prédateurs et des parasitoïdes (chapitre 4). Le quatrième objectif était d’utiliser la proie sentinelle Galleria mellonella L. comme technique de piégeage pour identifier les principaux ennemis naturels capables de réguler la population de foreurs (chapitre 5). L'expérimentation a été réalisée en utilisant des œufs, des larves et des pupes de G. mellonella. Les résultats ont montré que les fourmis (Formicidae) étaient les prédateurs les plus importants et les plus efficaces. Le cinquième objectif était de déterminer la flore associée aux foreurs (chapitre 6). Les observations consistaient à échantillonner les mauvaises herbes dans quatre conditions observées dans la plantation (Proche du cours d'eau, à l'intérieur du champ, entre les champs et la mangrove et en bordure de champ). Six espèces de mauvaises herbes (Poaceae) ont été identifiées comme plantes hôtes de D. tabernella. Le sixième objectif était d'étudier l'effet des différentes pratiques agricoles sur la réduction des infestations par les foreurs. Tout d'abord, dans ce contexte, les niveaux de dégâts et l'impact économique ont été évalués sur différentes variétés commerciales de canne à sucre. L'essai visait à déterminer l'effet de ces variétés sur le niveau de dégât des foreurs, la teneur en sucre et l'impact sur le rendement de la canne à sucre (chapitre 7). Nos résultats ont montré que D. tabernella était capable de réduire la quantité et la qualité du sucre et de la biomasse en fonction du type de variété. Deuxièmement, nous avons étudié l'effet des doses d'azote et de la silice appliquées au champ sur l'infestation par les foreurs (chapitre 8). Pour réaliser cet objectif, nous avons conduit deux essais en utilisant un dispositif expérimental avec 4 répétitions. Les résultats ont montré que l'application de niveaux élevés d'azote augmentait significativement l'infestation. Au contraire, l'utilisation de silice réduit significativement l'infestation de foreurs. En résumé, ces résultats ont permis l'identification des principales espèces de foreurs, leurs ennemis naturels et la flore associée, leur impact sur la canne à sucre et l'importance des pratiques agricoles dans la gestion de ces ravageurs au Panama. / Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) is grown in more than 100 countries worldwide with a total production averaging 170 million tons of sugar that has a profound economic impact on social and governmental issues. In terms of biological constraints there is a complex of diseases and pests that significantly reduce the productivity of sugarcane including stemborers. In Panama, the most important pests that cause losses in sugarcane are lepidopteran stemborers. The aim of this thesis was to study the bioecology of these major pests in Panama and to study different agricultural practices that influence stemborer infestations. To carry out this aim, our thesis has been divided into six overall objectives which constitute 8 different chapters. After presenting the general context (chapter 1), the first objective was to review the results obtained on integrated pest management strategies against the sugarcane borers Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Cambridae), Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Telchin licus (Drury) (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) in America that compiles 221 references from 1933 to 2017 (chapter 2).The second objective was to identify the main sugarcane pest species of Diatraea spp. (Lepidoptera: Cambridae). This research used external morphology and genitalia by comparison with the well know species D. saccharalis and allowed to confirm Diatraea tabernella Dyar as the main stemborer species in Panama (chapter 3). The third objective was to determine the entomofauna associated with stemborers using different trapping systems. A cohort of arthropods was identified as pest species, predators and parasitoids (chapter 4). The fourth objective was to evaluate the use of sentinel prey of Galleria mellonella L. as a trapping technique to identify the key natural enemies that are able to regulate borer population (chapter 5). The experiment was carried out using G. mellonella eggs, larvae and pupae and the results showed that ants (Formicidae) were the most important and effective predators. The fifth objective was to determine the flora associated with stemborers (Weeds present in and around sugarcane fields) (chapter 6). The survey consisted of sampling weeds in four conditions observed in the plantation (Close source of water, within the plantation, between the field and mangrove and at field edges). Six weed species (Poaceae) were identified as host plants of D. tabernella. The sixth objective was to investigate the effect of different agricultural practices on reducing stemborer infestations. As a first step, damage levels and economic impact of stemborer were assessed through a field experiment to determine the effect of different sugarcane varieties on stemborer damage level, the production of sugar components and the impact on sugarcane yield (chapter 7). Our results showed that D. tabernella was able to reduce the quantity and quality of sugar and biomass depending on the type of variety. Second, the effect of silicon and nitrogen doses applied in the field on stemborers infestation were investigated (chapter 8). To carry out this objective we conducted two experiments using an experimental design with 4 replicates. The results showed that the application of high nitrogen levels increased stemborer infestation. The use of silicon significantly reduced infestation.The outcomes of this thesis were the identification of the main species of stemborers, their natural enemies and associated flora, the quantification of their impact on sugarcane and the importance agricultural practices in managing these pests in Panama.