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Current evidence suggests that non-medical prescription stimulant (NMPS) use is on the rise, particularly among college students. Identifying individuals at risk for regular and problematic use is a critical step towards the development of effective intervention efforts. A growing body of work has noted that individuals with elevated levels of social anxiety (SA) or social anxiety disorder are at an enhanced risk for developing substance use problems, including NMPS use disorder. Despite the relevance of SA and NMPS use among college students, no studies have attempted to examine subclinical SA or the relation between SA and NMPS use among college students specifically. Thus, the present study sought to extend this area by testing the relation of SA symptoms and NMPS use frequency among college students. A large online study of college students was conducted (N=1604) to identify 252 NMPS users (18-25 years; 68.3% female). A hierarchical linear regression was used to test the moderation of positive prescription stimulant expectancies on SA symptoms in predicting past year NMPS use frequency. A subsample of 15 participants was also brought into the lab to assess subjective (State Anxiety) and physiological (salivary cortisol) responding to a social stressor task. Overall, the current study did not provide evidence that SA, via retrospective self-report or real-time responding was related to past year NMPS use frequency. Additional research is needed to resolve the discrepancies between the present findings and prior work.

Intravenous injection of 3-33 nmol/kg of substance P (SP) caused pressor and tachycardic responses in anesthetized rats. The responses were not blocked by a ganglion nicotinic receptor antagonist or by pithing. Pretreatment with reserpine blocked both responses. β-Adrenoceptor blockade attenuated only the tachycardic response, and α-adrenoceptor blockade attenuated only the pressor response. These findings indicated that the effects of SP to increase blood pressure and heart rate are due to sympathetic ganglion stimulation. Studies with adrenalectomized rats showed that stimulation of the adrenals by SP contributes to both responses but makes a greater contribution to the tachycardic response. These observations raise the possibility that the tachykinin innervation of sympathetic ganglia and the adrenal medulla may be involved in the local regulation of blood pressure and heart rate.

Intravenous injection of substance P (SP) increases blood pressure in normotensive rats by stimulating sympathetic ganglia. This study compared the effects of SP to increase renal nerve firing and blood pressure in normotensive and hypertensive rats treated with chlorisondamine. The increase in renal nerve firing was greatest in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), intermediate in Wistar rats, and least in Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats. Blood pressure was increased more in SHR than in Wistar rats. Blood pressure was not increased in WKY rats. Responses to the ganglionic stimulant 1, 1-dimethyl-4-phenylpiperazinium were the same in the three strains. These results suggest that there is a selective increase in the action of SP on sympathetic ganglia of SHR and that ganglion responsiveness to SP is correlated with its effect on blood pressure.

The global business industry is greatly affected by revolutionised human knowledge that requires a continued understanding of human preferences, needs and wants. Motivation to innovate must be understood when marketers aim for business success. Business success is seen in customer satisfaction and employee performance. The starting point for success is the miraculous ideas of employees. These ideas can be anything from the creation of a product or service to the execution of that product or service. Exploring the factors affecting the motivation to innovate on product development may lead marketers to business success by increased profitability, a bigger customer base, and retaining motivated skilled employees with the ability to innovate. This research is based on the South African multinational retailer Woolworths, with the focus on food and design packaging. A qualitative research approach was followed where data was collected from 11 participants using semi-structured individual face-to-face in-depth interviews and structured questionnaires. This study followed a manual thematic approach in an inductive manner. The needs of the participants in this study were categorised into three sections: Need for power, need for achievement and need for affiliation. This study also introduced McClelland's extended needs, and the motive for self-expression stood out among the cohort, confirming their creative skills. With the aid of individual components, domain-relevant skills, intrinsic task motivation and creativity stimulants, the study was able to link the presence of creativity to motivation and innovation. It confirmed that once the creativity intersection combines with organisational components there is a motivational synergy that produces innovation. The results of the study further indicated that internal motivation factors had a greater impact than external factors. As per organisational components, business values were shown to have an influence on the development of a product design. Legislation policies were deemed beneficial to forced creative thinking, yet it was also regarded as a limitation that can be improved through creative flexibility. Other factors that emerged were organisational socialisation, aligned stakeholder communication, sufficient market research, and respecting the emergence of seasonal trends. Future research should explore ways of improving organisational components that act as external influences on individual creative thinking. Moreover, future research should explore how effective training can help stakeholders learn and acquire the rights needs together with the continuous support from the business.

Little research exists on gender differences regarding prevalence or perceptions of risk associated with college students’ misuse, illegal consumption, and diversion of prescription stimulant medications. Data from Mississippi State University undergraduates (N = 1,714) were examined for gender differences in illicit behaviors and related risk perceptions. Men were more likely to report consumption and diversion, but not more likely to report misuse of their own prescription stimulants. Overall, men reported lower risk perceptions associated with consumption of others’ prescription stimulants. This finding held true for legal and health risk perceptions for those uninvolved in diversion or consumption, for health risk perceptions for those who report consumption, and for social risk perceptions for those who report diversion. Although some analyses were underpowered, results help clarify how researchers define and measure these behaviors, determine possible relationships between risk perceptions and illicit use of prescription stimulant medications, and identify potential targets for intervention.

Auf der Grundlage einer epidemiologischen Untersuchung an 3021 Probanden im Alter von 14-24 Jahren (Ausschöpfung 71%) werden Prävalenz von Gebrauch, Miβbrauch und Abhängigkeit von Ecstasy, verwandten Amphetaminen und Halluzinogenen bestimmt sowie Gebrauchsmuster und Korrelate des Gebrauchs untersucht. Als diagnostisches Interview wurde das computerisierte und standardisierte M-CIDI verwendet. Ergebnisse: (1) 14-24jährige gebrauchen Ecstasy häufig (4% aller Manner und 2,3% aller Frauen), XTC-verwandte Amphetamine werden mit 3,6% (Manner) bzw. 1,6% (Frauen) etwas seltener konsumiert. Die LSD-Gebrauchs-Prävalenz liegt bei 2,8% (Manner) bzw. 1,4% (Frauen); verwandte Halluzinogene werden von insgesamt 1,5% der Befragten angegeben. (2) Vergleiche mit Erhebungen aus dem Jahr 1990 lassen eine erhebliche Steigerung (Verdoppelung bzw. Verdreifachung) des Konsums sowohl von Ecstasy und verwandten Präparaten wie auch von Halluzinogenen erkennen. (3) Die Prävalenz klinisch manifester Miβbrauchs– und Abhängigkeitsdiagnosen nach DSM-IV liegen in der Altersgruppe 14-24jähriger bezüglich Ecstasy bei fast 1%, bei Halluzinogenen etwas darunter. Das Verhältnis Gebrauchs-Prävalenz zu diagnostischer Prävalenz von zirka 6:1 läβt auf ein signifikantes «Sucht»potential dieser Substanzen schlieβen. (4) Altersrisikoanalysen lassen erkennen, daβ sich das Einstiegsalter für beide Substanzen in jüngere Altersgruppen verschiebt. Nur für Ecstasy läβt sich über alle Altersstufen hinweg ein stetiger Anstieg von Erstgebrauchsraten nachweisen, demgegenüber bleibt die Rate von Erstkonsumenten bei Halluzinogenen nach dem 18. Lebensjahr stabil. (5) Bezüglich Einstiegs-und Ausstiegsmotivationen ergaben sich für beide Stoffgruppen recht unterschiedliche Muster, die als Hinweis für die Notwendigkeit substanz-spezifischer Präventionskonzepte interpretiert werden. Folgerungen: Die Verbreitung von Ecstasy und Halluzinogenen bei Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen nimmt offensichtlich weiter in beschleunigter Form zu. Im Zusammenhang mit einem bislang häufig unterschätzten «Sucht»potential wird ein rapid wachsender Präventions– und Therapiebedarf absehbar, der für die Verhaltenstherapie eine besondere Herausforderung darstellt.

The frequency of illicit use of prescription stimulants (IUPS) was examined in relation to known risk factors. A hierarchical linear regression (N = 903) was used to evaluate self-reported past-year IUPS and demographic variables. Gender (p < .05), race (p < .05), and GPA (p < .01) were significantly associated with the frequency of past-year illicit use. However, Greek organization membership status, perceived ADHD symptoms and access to prescription stimulant medication were not significant individual correlates of past-year IUPS. Additional analyses were conducted on the user subgroup (n = 101) to determine whether these relationships were similar compared to the general sample. Among users, ASRS Inattention and Hyperactivity-Impulsivity Subscale scores were significantly associated with the frequency of past-year IUPS (p < .05), even after accounting for gender, race, and GPA. Interpretations of these findings and implications for future research are discussed.

Illicit use of prescription stimulants (IUPS) has become more common in the late adolescent and emerging adulthood populations. This study examined the impact of close friend and parent disapproval/approval on IUPS in college students. A sample of 903 college students (MAge = 19.23) completed a questionnaire assessing variables including lifetime IUPS (14.59% of sample), and perceived close friend/parent disapproval/approval of either academic or recreational IUPS. A 2 X 2 chi-square test of independence was used to analyze data regarding perceived close friend/parent disapproval/approval and IUPS. There were four primary findings. First, students were significantly less likely to report having engaged in IUPS if they perceived close friend (CHI2 (1) = 55.99, p < .001) or parent disapproval (CHI2 (1) = 31.99, p < .001) of IUPS for academic purposes. Second, students were significantly less likely to report having engaged in IUPS if they perceived close friend disapproval of IUPS for recreational purposes (CHI2 (1) = 24.38, p < .001). Third, students were significantly more likely to report having engaged in IUPS if they perceived close friend approval (CHI2 (1) = 51.17, p < .001) and parent approval (CHI2 (1) = 7.87, p = .005) for academically-motivated IUPS. Fourth, students were significantly more likely to report having engaged in IUPS if they perceived close friend approval for recreationally-motivated IUPS (CHI2 (1) = 33.86, p < .001). Future researchers should focus on conducting longitudinal studies to confirm if perceived close friend and parent approval function as risk factors for IUPS and if disapproval functions as a protective factor. Future research is also needed to help identify whether student perceptions of disapproval and approval are accurate (i.e., do close friends and parents really approve or disapprove of IUPS?). Finally, investigators should work to assess whether increased perceptions of disapproval can function to reduce level of IUPS (i.e., not just lifetime prevalence) and whether increases in perceived approval function to exacerbate IUPS. Results of these kinds of research efforts would better inform whether psychoeducational interventions should target decreasing approval and increasing disapproval perceptions in order to both prevent and reduce IUPS behaviors.

The illicit use of prescription stimulants (IUPS) is a critical Public Health problem in the college population that represents a unique form of substance use. Namely, the primary motives for IUPS by college students are academic in nature (e.g., Teter, McCabe, LaGrange, Cranford, & Boyd, 2006), which may explain why usage rates as high as 43% have been reported on college campuses (Advokat, Guidry, & Martino, 2008). As the field of IUPS is in its infancy, the IUPS-literature lacks 1) a consistent definition of "illicit use of prescription stimulants", 2) an instrument designed to assess the multiple influences on IUPS behavior, and 3) a theoretical lens (Bavarian, 2010a). Accordingly, the goal of this study was to address these research gaps by examining IUPS at one university located in the Pacific Northwest using the theory of triadic influence (TTI; Flay & Petraitis, 1994; Flay, Snyder, & Petraitis, 2009), an integrated, ecological approach to explaining and predicting health behaviors. The study included five phases of research. The first phase began with a systematic approach to measurement development resulting in a 97-item preliminary instrument, the Behaviors, Expectancies, Attitudes and College Health Questionnaire (BEACH-Q). The measure was reviewed by the dissertation committee, leading to revisions in content and structure. During phase II, the BEACH-Q was evaluated by a convenience sample of five health and measurement professionals, and results suggested good content validity of the instrument (i.e. 35 of the 37 TTI-based covariates received a median rating between "agree" and "strongly agree", and 34 received a mean rating between "agree" and "strongly agree"). In phase III (instrument review by a convenience sample of six undergraduates), all 37 covariates received a median and mean rating between "agree" and "strongly agree", confirming good face validity. In phase IV, one undergraduate classroom was selected to participate in a pilot test of the BEACH-Q, using test-retest methodology. Results from the pilot (N = 39) showed that the instrument had moderate to high internal consistency reliability and modest to high stability reliability. In phase V, the final 96-item version of the BEACH-Q was administered throughout campus using one-stage cluster sampling, with classrooms as the sampling unit and students as the observation unit (N = 520 students in 20 classrooms, eligible student response rate = 96.30%). The prevalence of IUPS during college self-reported by the phase V sample was 25.58%, and the probability of engaging in IUPS did not differ between classrooms (Median Odds Ratio = 1.00). In crude logistic regressions, 24 out of 37 hypothesized theoretical covariates were significantly associated with IUPS in the expected direction, suggesting predictive validity of the BEACH-Q. Nested logistic regression analyses illustrated that, for the full multivariate model including ultimate, distal, and proximal covariates, the following measures in the intrapersonal stream were significantly associated with IUPS during college: race/ethnicity, year in school, academic concern, academic grades, diagnosis with Attention Deficit Disorder, and IUPS avoidance self-efficacy. Significant social situation/context stream covariates in the full model included: residence, varsity sports participation, perceptions of IUPS by friends, family, and faculty, endorsement of IUPS by friends, and perceived prevalence of IUPS among friends. With respect to the sociocultural environment stream, in the full multivariate model, the following covariates were found to be significantly associated with IUPS: financial-related stress, participation in religious activities, positive IUPS expectancies, prescription stimulant knowledge and perceived costs/benefits of IUPS. Lastly, intention to engage in IUPS (an immediate precursor) was positively associated with IUPS. Structural equation modeling was used to test models of IUPS for each of the three streams, as well as one integrated model that included covariates from each stream. The models all demonstrated good model fit, and provided insight into the factors that influence (and suggest the mechanisms of causation) intentions to engage in, and ultimately the behavior of, IUPS. In the intrapersonal stream model, inattention was positively associated with academic concern and inversely associated with avoidance self-efficacy, and avoidance self-efficacy was inversely associated with intentions to engage in IUPS. Moreover, intentions to engage in IUPS and avoidance self-efficacy were both significantly associated with IUPS. In the social situation/context stream model, living on-campus was negatively associated with friends' endorsement of IUPS which was positively associated with perceived prevalence of IUPS among friends, and perceived prevalence was positively associated with intentions to engage in IUPS; all of the direct paths to IUPS, excepting the path from perceived prevalence of IUPS among friends, were significant. In the sociocultural environment model, perception of course demand was significantly associated with both the perception that professors give the most attention to top academic students and attitudes about the impact of prescription stimulants on academics, and these attitudes had a positive association with intentions to engage in IUPS. Moreover, the direct paths from attitudes and intentions to IUPS were significant. The mixed model, including participation in religious activities (sociocultural environment stream), friends' endorsement of IUPS (social situation/context stream), and avoidance self-efficacy (intrapersonal stream), also had significant paths from ultimate to distal to proximal to immediate precursor, and significant direct paths to IUPS. This study successfully achieved its goals. First, the instrument developed was theory-driven, broadly defined IUPS, and was psychometrically strong. The cross-sectional study illustrated that IUPS was prevalent on the campus under investigation, as one in four students had engaged in the behavior during college. Associations of use with theoretical correlates were tested for, and structural equation modeling was used to support one premise of the TTI (i.e. that behavior is multifaceted, and covariates from different streams may interact to influence behavior). The findings also suggest that prevention and intervention plans should be multifaceted in nature. Given that this study's cross-sectional nature limited the ability to make causal inferences, future research involving the BEACH-Q should use longitudinal designs. / Graduation date: 2012