This analysis examined cranial epigenetic and morphological nonmetric traits in 756 subadults (fetal to <20 years), in European, African, and Asian samples. The goals of this research were to assess: the age and manner in which nonmetric traits develop and if variation between geographic groupings is present in subadults; the role of the adolescent growth spurt in trait expression; the feasibility of utilizing subadult crania in biological distance studies and ancestry assessment. A number of epigenetic and morphological traits show a primarily genetic versus developmental basis, suggested by the fact that there was no difference in trait frequencies between the fetal/0-3 and 15-20 year age categories. Eighty-five percent of epigenetic traits appear before 3 years; 54% were age stable by 3 years, and 75% were stable before age ten. Geographic cranial variation is present at an early age as demonstrated by the appearance of 58% of morphological traits before age 3, and 90% by age 10. Ten and a half percent of morphological traits are age stable before 3 years of age, 48% by age 10. Traits statistically significant between pre-pubertal and pubertal and/or pubertal and post pubertal individuals are hyperostotic, functional, and in some cases, sex dependent. Few epigenetic (1.3%) and morphological traits (7.9%) were found to be sex dependent, possibly because sexually dimorphism may not be fully expressed in individuals in the 15-20 year age category. Features that indicate ancestry develop before puberty, and do not require the onset of puberty and sexual dimorphism to be fully formed. Three-quarters of epigenetic traits were age stable and showed trait frequencies similar to adults before 10 years of age, suggesting subadults could be included in biodistance studies using these traits. Twenty-four morphological traits were statistically significant between geographic groups and show promise for future use in the forensic analysis of ancestry assessment in children.

This analysis examined cranial epigenetic and morphological nonmetric traits in 756 subadults (fetal to <20 years), in European, African, and Asian samples. The goals of this research were to assess: the age and manner in which nonmetric traits develop and if variation between geographic groupings is present in subadults; the role of the adolescent growth spurt in trait expression; the feasibility of utilizing subadult crania in biological distance studies and ancestry assessment. A number of epigenetic and morphological traits show a primarily genetic versus developmental basis, suggested by the fact that there was no difference in trait frequencies between the fetal/0-3 and 15-20 year age categories. Eighty-five percent of epigenetic traits appear before 3 years; 54% were age stable by 3 years, and 75% were stable before age ten. Geographic cranial variation is present at an early age as demonstrated by the appearance of 58% of morphological traits before age 3, and 90% by age 10. Ten and a half percent of morphological traits are age stable before 3 years of age, 48% by age 10. Traits statistically significant between pre-pubertal and pubertal and/or pubertal and post pubertal individuals are hyperostotic, functional, and in some cases, sex dependent. Few epigenetic (1.3%) and morphological traits (7.9%) were found to be sex dependent, possibly because sexually dimorphism may not be fully expressed in individuals in the 15-20 year age category. Features that indicate ancestry develop before puberty, and do not require the onset of puberty and sexual dimorphism to be fully formed. Three-quarters of epigenetic traits were age stable and showed trait frequencies similar to adults before 10 years of age, suggesting subadults could be included in biodistance studies using these traits. Twenty-four morphological traits were statistically significant between geographic groups and show promise for future use in the forensic analysis of ancestry assessment in children.

This research analyzed bioarchaeological data from the Peruvian site of Túcume in an attempt to understand what the overall mortality profile may have been like, as well as what patterns may have been seen in juvenile and infant mortality. The primary data set, which consisted of estimated age-at-death values from previously excavated skeletal remains, was examined via three different models (Life Table, 5 Year Incremental, and Categorical), as well as compared to data from two other comparable sites (Pacatnamú and Farfán). It was found that individuals at Túcume were dying in unequal proportions across the age groups, ranging from newborn to approximately 65 years of age. Each of the three models displayed varying trends and, with the comparison between the three sites, differing mortality patterns were seen. The rate of fertility in the primary data set was calculated to have been high and may have had an effect on the mortality patterns. This research helps to fill a gap that exists within the literature and is important because of the importance of infants. While there is a biological draw towards reproduction, there is also the social aspect of it and the fact of the matter is that most individuals decide to have offspring simply because they want to. Infant mortality is a field of interest because, as a society, we want our young to live and identifying patterns or potential factors in their mortality is one of the first steps towards helping more of them do so successfully. Even though the data looked at here was from an archaeological context, analyzing ancient societies can provide us with the opportunity to gain knowledge and may be used as a reference point both in the present and for the future.

No description available.