L'efficacité caractérise tous les aspects du droit des contrats. De plus, elle semble avoir été toujours immanente à l'instrument contractuel, pouvant s'appréhender comme la véritable logique traversant toute l'évolution juridique du contrat pendant les siècles. Et notamment, d'après l'analyse des règles du Code Napoléon en matière de contrats, de la relative jurisprudence et également de la Réforme du droit des contrats du 2016, nous avons découvert deux formes de logique sous-entendues à l'efficacité, l'une subjective et l'autre objective. La théorie classique du contrat est dominée par une logique subjective de l'efficacité résultant de la volonté des parties. En effet, la magnificence de cette volonté règne presque sans partage, consacrée, d'ailleurs, par les principes fondamentaux d'intangibilité et de stabilité du contrat et glorifiée par le rôle très restreint du juge, qui est un simple et scrupuleux exécuteur de la volonté des parties. En revanche, l'affaiblissement du rôle de la volonté subjective a déterminé une recrudescence de l'efficacité objective, ouvrant la voie à une analyse plus globale du contrat qui intègre la subjectivité de la volonté dans l'objectivité de l'environnement socio-économique. Cette lecture nouvelle révèle une compréhension plus complexe et objective du contrat qui nous amène à l'étudier et à l'intégrer dans le milieu où il opère. Le contrat n'est donc plus tourné uniquement vers la subjectivité engendrée par les volontés puisqu'il considère également l'objectivité issue des enjeux extérieurs. / The effectiveness characterizes any and alI aspects of the law of contracts. Moreover, it seems to have been always so immanent in the contractual instrument that can be grasped as the real logic through all the legal evolution of the contract over many centuries. ln particular, from the analysis of the rules of the Code Napoléon on contracts, the related case law as welI as the Reforrn of the law of contracts enacted in 2016, we inferred two forms of logic underlying the contractual effectiveness, one subjective and the other objective. The classical theory of contract is dominated by a subjective logic of effectiveness resulting from the will of the parties. Indeed, the magnificence of this will reigns almost unfettered and, moreover, is sealed on the other band by the fundamental principles of the contract sanctity and stability and glorified by the very limited role of the judge, as a simple and scrupulous executor of the parties' will. Conversely, the weakening of the role of the subjective will has determined an increase of the objective effectiveness, paying the way for a more comprehensive analysis of the contract that incorporates the subjectivity of the parties' will into the objectivity of the socio-economic environrnent. This new line of interprelation reveals a more complex and objective understanding of the contract leading us to study and integrate it in the context where it operates. The con tract is then no longer turned only to subjectivity generated by the parties' will, since it also considers the objectivity deriving from environrnental eternal challenges.

La difficulté de la plainte mnésique est son aspect subjectif et son évaluation. Le concept de Subjective Cognitive Impairment (SCI) est une réalité épidémiologique. Nous rapportons ici notre expérience, au sein du service de neurologie Comportementale des Hôpitaux sud de MARSEILLE d'une cohorte de sujets consultants sur une période de plus de 6 ans, sur le plan neurologique, neuropsychologique et de la neuroimagerie. Le SCI représente un état anatomo-clinique défini, qu'on peut séparer à la fois des Contrôles Normaux (CN) et des Mild Cognitive Impairment-Amnésiques (MCI-A), sur le plan neuropsychologique, anatomique en IRM. Un suivi, sur une relativement courte période, permet de noter le passage de SCI en MCI-A, voir beaucoup plus rarement de SCI en Maladie d'Alzheimer-Légère (MA-L). Ces sujets évolutifs peuvent être repérés dès le premier bilan, par un test de mémoire épisodique verbale, comme le RAVLT RD. Ce test permet de prédire l'évolutivité des SCI et de caractériser les sujets susceptibles d'évoluer vers un MCI-A à 1 an. Pour améliorer l'étude de la plainte cognitive, il est important d'avoir un outil adapté. Le Memory Functioning Questionnaire (MFQ) est incomparablement plus efficace et plus précis que le Subjective Cognitive Deficit (SCD), dans l'approche diagnostique CN / SCI. L'atteinte directe de l'aire 10, qui sous-tendrait la métamémoire, à ce stade n'est pas prouvée mais pourrait être dû à une dysconnexion par atteinte de la substance blanche du faisceau cingulaire, dans sa partie antérieure. A ce stade, les sujets vont donc se plaindre du fonctionnement de leur mémoire, à cause des mauvaises informations reçues et traitées par l'aire 10. / The difficulty of the memory complaint is its subjective expression and its evaluation. The concept of Subjective Cognitive Impairment (SCI) is an epidemiological reality. We report our experience in the neurology department of Behavioral Hôpitaux Sud in Marseille a cohort of subjects over a period of more than 6 years, neurologically, neuropsychological and neuroimaging. SCI is a clinicopathological state defined wich can be separated from both Normal Controls (NC) and amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (A-MCI). MRI does not distinguish between CN and SCI. The SCI are different from the MCI-A, in terms of cognitive-behavioral and neuropsychological tests. Anatomically, MRI, differ A-MCI from SCI, by lesions of cerebral diffuse atrophy of hippocampal atrophy, anterior cingulated and atrophy, indicating a more intense underlying neurobiological processes. We can observe on a relatively short period, allows you to note the passing of SCI in A-MCI, or more rarely in Alzheimer‟s Disease (AD). These evolutionary topics can be identified as the first assessment, a test of verbal episodic memory, as RAVLT DR. This test predicts the scalability of SCI and characterizes subjects likely to progress to A-MCI to 1 year. To improve the study of cognitive complaint, it is important to have a suitable tool. The Memory Functioning Questionnaire (MFQ) is incomparably more efficient and accurate than the Subjective Cognitive Deficit (SCD) in the diagnostic CN / SCI approach. The direct interference of area 10, wich underlies metamemory, at this point is not proven but could be due to a disconnection by reaching the white matter of the cingulated bundle in its anterior region.

Dementia is a growing burden for society, and it is of interest to discover it at an early stage. Both subjective cognitive decline (SCD) and subjective olfactory decline (SOD) has been associated with future cognitive decline and dementia. However, subjective measures have often been criticized and are still not fully understood. I aimed to examinate the frequency of SCD and SOD and whether they are likely to measure different things and what their longitudinal effects are. The baseline sample (N=784, 35-90 years, 51% female) were split into reported SCD, SOD, combined subjective olfactory and cognitive decline, and controls. Between-subjects and within-subjects statistical tests were conducted on a subset of participants (N=307, 45 to 90 years, 52% female) comparing SCD and SOD and their olfactory ability, cognitive performance, and demographics. In the baseline sample, a total of 21.1% reported a SOD whereas only 9.9% reported a SCD, only 2.7% reported both. SOD individuals had an emerged olfactory decline at follow up, their olfactory performance was associated with performance in several cognitive tests, this was not the case for the SCD individuals. The SOD and the SCD groups differ from each other, and they appear to be rather independent from each other. They might be complementary in understanding the aging brain.

In previous work, we presented evidence suggesting that ordinary people do not conceive of subjective experiences as having phenomenal qualities. We then argued that these findings undermine a common justification given for the reality of the hard problem of consciousness. In a thought-provoking article, Talbot has challenged our argument. In this article, we respond to his criticism.

No description available.

Contexto: devido à crescente necessidade de melhor conhecer os elementos organizacionais, as medições subjetivas estão ganhando um espaço cada vez maior. Problema: podemos avaliar o quão confiável em relação à realidade do atributo de um mensurando é uma amostra de dados obtidos por meio de medição subjetiva bivalorada? Hipóteses: Hipótese 1 - já existe um método científico que consiga realizar eficazmente a avaliação citada no problema; Hipótese 2 - caso a primeira hipótese não seja satisfeita, é possível criar um método que possa realizar eficazmente aquela avaliação. Objetivo: após confirmada a inexistência de um método consagrado cientificamente que consiga realizar a avaliação citada no problema, então, desenvolver um método que realize eficazmente aquela avaliação. Métodos: elaboração do embasamento teórico sobre os fundamentos da medição subjetiva; revisão bibliográfica sobre os métodos existentes que trabalham com medição subjetiva bivalorada; elaboração e validação de um método que solucione o problema proposto. Escopo e limitações: as publicações utilizadas para elaborar a fundamentação teórica sobre medição subjetiva e o novo método são multidisciplinares, porém o enfoque dado aos estudos foi para a gestão organizacional, com ênfase nos assuntos pertinentes à Engenharia de Produção e áreas afins. Resultados obtidos: (1) foram elaborados os postulados sobre medição subjetiva; (2) foram delineadas as principais fontes de erros de medição subjetiva baseada naqueles postulados; (3) não foi encontrado na literatura pertinente qualquer método científico ou expressão matemática que solucione o problema proposto; (4) foi elaborado um método para trabalhar com medição subjetiva bivalorada. Análise dos resultados: (1) os postulados elaborados serviram de base para o levantamento das principais fontes de erros de medições subjetivas; (2) o embasamento teórico serviu como fundamentação para a elaboração do método preliminar que utilizava a medição subjetiva bivalorada; (3) novos estudos permitiram um aperfeiçoamento do método preliminar, elaborando o novo método; (4) um estudo de caso mostrou a aplicabilidade do novo método. Conclusões: os estudos realizados permitiram comprovar a eficácia do método para medições subjetivas bivaloradas. / Background: Due to the growing need to better understand the organizational elements, subjective measurements are gaining more and more space. Problem: can we assess how reliable a data sample collected via 2-value subjective measurement is in relation to the reality of the attribute of a measurand? Hypotheses: Hypothesis 1 - there is already a scientific method that can effectively perform the assessment mentioned in the problem; Hypothesis 2 - in the even the first hypothesis is not met, it is possible to create a method that can effectively perform that assessment. Purpose: After confirming the absence of a scientifically established method that can perform the evaluation mentioned in the problem, the purpose is to develop a method to effectively perform that evaluation. Methods: Development of theoretical basis on the grounds of subjective measurements; literature review on existing methods that work with 2-value subjective measurement; development and validation of a new method that solves the problem proposed. Scope and limitations: the publications used to develop the theoretical framework of subjective measurements and the new method are multidisciplinary, yet the focus given to the studies was more related to organizational management, with emphasis on matters pertaining to Production Engineering and related fields. Results: (1) postulates on subjective measurements have been elaborated; (2) the main sources of subjective measurement errors based on those postulates have been outlined; (3) no scientific method or mathematical expression that may address the problem proposed has been found on the literature; (4) a method was developed to work with two-value subjective measurements. Analysis of results: (1) the postulates developed served as a basis for raising the main sources of subjective measurement errors; (2) the theoretical framework served as the basis for establishing the primary method that used two-value subjective measurements; (3) new studies allowed for the improvement of the primary method by developing the new method; (4) a case study showed the applicability of the new method. Conclusions: The studies have allowed us to effectiveness of the method for 2-value subjective measurements.

Contexto: devido à crescente necessidade de melhor conhecer os elementos organizacionais, as medições subjetivas estão ganhando um espaço cada vez maior. Problema: podemos avaliar o quão confiável em relação à realidade do atributo de um mensurando é uma amostra de dados obtidos por meio de medição subjetiva bivalorada? Hipóteses: Hipótese 1 - já existe um método científico que consiga realizar eficazmente a avaliação citada no problema; Hipótese 2 - caso a primeira hipótese não seja satisfeita, é possível criar um método que possa realizar eficazmente aquela avaliação. Objetivo: após confirmada a inexistência de um método consagrado cientificamente que consiga realizar a avaliação citada no problema, então, desenvolver um método que realize eficazmente aquela avaliação. Métodos: elaboração do embasamento teórico sobre os fundamentos da medição subjetiva; revisão bibliográfica sobre os métodos existentes que trabalham com medição subjetiva bivalorada; elaboração e validação de um método que solucione o problema proposto. Escopo e limitações: as publicações utilizadas para elaborar a fundamentação teórica sobre medição subjetiva e o novo método são multidisciplinares, porém o enfoque dado aos estudos foi para a gestão organizacional, com ênfase nos assuntos pertinentes à Engenharia de Produção e áreas afins. Resultados obtidos: (1) foram elaborados os postulados sobre medição subjetiva; (2) foram delineadas as principais fontes de erros de medição subjetiva baseada naqueles postulados; (3) não foi encontrado na literatura pertinente qualquer método científico ou expressão matemática que solucione o problema proposto; (4) foi elaborado um método para trabalhar com medição subjetiva bivalorada. Análise dos resultados: (1) os postulados elaborados serviram de base para o levantamento das principais fontes de erros de medições subjetivas; (2) o embasamento teórico serviu como fundamentação para a elaboração do método preliminar que utilizava a medição subjetiva bivalorada; (3) novos estudos permitiram um aperfeiçoamento do método preliminar, elaborando o novo método; (4) um estudo de caso mostrou a aplicabilidade do novo método. Conclusões: os estudos realizados permitiram comprovar a eficácia do método para medições subjetivas bivaloradas. / Background: Due to the growing need to better understand the organizational elements, subjective measurements are gaining more and more space. Problem: can we assess how reliable a data sample collected via 2-value subjective measurement is in relation to the reality of the attribute of a measurand? Hypotheses: Hypothesis 1 - there is already a scientific method that can effectively perform the assessment mentioned in the problem; Hypothesis 2 - in the even the first hypothesis is not met, it is possible to create a method that can effectively perform that assessment. Purpose: After confirming the absence of a scientifically established method that can perform the evaluation mentioned in the problem, the purpose is to develop a method to effectively perform that evaluation. Methods: Development of theoretical basis on the grounds of subjective measurements; literature review on existing methods that work with 2-value subjective measurement; development and validation of a new method that solves the problem proposed. Scope and limitations: the publications used to develop the theoretical framework of subjective measurements and the new method are multidisciplinary, yet the focus given to the studies was more related to organizational management, with emphasis on matters pertaining to Production Engineering and related fields. Results: (1) postulates on subjective measurements have been elaborated; (2) the main sources of subjective measurement errors based on those postulates have been outlined; (3) no scientific method or mathematical expression that may address the problem proposed has been found on the literature; (4) a method was developed to work with two-value subjective measurements. Analysis of results: (1) the postulates developed served as a basis for raising the main sources of subjective measurement errors; (2) the theoretical framework served as the basis for establishing the primary method that used two-value subjective measurements; (3) new studies allowed for the improvement of the primary method by developing the new method; (4) a case study showed the applicability of the new method. Conclusions: The studies have allowed us to effectiveness of the method for 2-value subjective measurements.

The present thesis deals with the subjective dimension of social stratification, more specifically subjective class and subjective status. The author begins by pointing to the subjective aspects of traditional theoretical backgrounds of class and hierarchical conception of social stratification. Then he analyzes subjective class and status as their analogous concepts and describes their application in empirical research, both foreign and Czech sociology. The analytical part presents its own secondary analysis of data from a representative survey ISSP 1992, 1999, 2009 and Social distance 2007 for the Czech Republic. Through this analysis author describes the differences between the two approaches and changes of their distribution and relation in time. Whereas subjective status is relatively stable in selected period, subjective class goes through a lot of changes. These changes are caused primarily by subjectively identified working class, whose representation weakens in time and approaches the class to subjective status. The author also deals with the differences of the declared reasons for identifying with class. For the lower classes it is especially their income which has the highest importance, middle and upper class also mentions the education and type of employment. But for higher classes it...

Объектом исследования является субъективное благополучие личности. Предметом исследования стали особенности субъективного благополучия учителей школ Монголии. Магистерская диссертация состоит из введения, двух глав, заключения, списка литературы (40 источников) и приложений, включающих в себя бланки применявшихся для исследования методик. Объем магистерской диссертации 57 страниц, на которых размещены 8 рисунков и 11 таблиц. Во введении раскрывается актуальность проблемы исследования, теоретическая и практическая значимость работы, разработанность проблематики, ставятся цель и задачи исследования, определяются объект и предмет исследования, формулируются основные гипотезы, указываются методы и эмпирическая база, а также этапы проведения исследования. В первой главе в результате анализа научной литературы были определены теоретические основания субъективного благополучия личности, выделены основные подходы, рассматривающие данный феномен, а также его функции, структура и детерминанты. Это позволило сформулировать определение понятия «субъективное благополучие», принятое в работе за основополагающее. Особый акцент сделан на рассмотрении роли субъективного благополучия в педагогической деятельности учителя. Выводы по первой главе представляют собой итоги по изучению теоретического материала. Вторая глава посвящена эмпирической части исследования. В ней представлено описание организации и методов проведенного исследования и результатов, полученных по всем использованным методикам: Шкала «Удовлетворенность жизнью» Э. Динера (SWSL), Шкала субъективного благополучия А. ПеруэБаду (адаптация М.В. Соколовой), Шкала субъективного счастья С. Любомирски и Х. Леппер (адаптация Д.А. Леонтьева). Также в главе представлены результаты описательной статистики и сравнительного анализа результатов исследования. Выводы по главе 2 включают в себя основные результаты эмпирического исследования. В заключении в обобщенном виде изложены результаты теоретической и эмпирической частей работы, а также выводы по выдвинутым гипотезам, обоснована практическая значимость исследования и описаны возможные перспективы дальнейшей разработки данной проблематики. / The object of the research is the subjective well-being of the individual. The subject of the research is the peculiarities of the subjective well-being of school teachers in Mongolia. The master's thesis consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references (40 sources) and annexes, including the forms used for the study of the methods. The volume of the master's thesis is 57 pages, which contain 8 figures and 11 tables. The introduction reveals the relevance of the research problem, the theoretical and practical significance of the work, the elaboration of the problematics, the goal and objectives of the research are set, the object and subject of the research are determined, the main hypotheses are formulated, the methods and empirical base, as well as the stages of the research, are indicated. In the first chapter, as a result of the analysis of scientific literature, the theoretical foundations of the subjective well-being of the individual were determined, the main approaches that consider this phenomenon, as well as its functions, structure and determinants, were highlighted. This made it possible to formulate the definition of the concept of "subjective well-being", which was taken as fundamental in the work. Particular emphasis is placed on considering the role of subjective well-being in the pedagogical activity of a teacher. The second chapter is devoted to the empirical part of the study. It contains a description of the organization and methods of the study and the results obtained by all the methods used: E. Diener's “Satisfaction with life” scale (SWSL), A. Peruebadu's subjective well-being scale (adaptation by M.V. Sokolova), S. Lubomirsky and H. Lepper (adaptation by D.A. Leontiev). The chapter also presents the results of descriptive statistics and comparative analysis of research results. Conclusions from Chapter 2 include the main findings of the empirical study. In the conclusion, in a generalized form, the results of the theoretical and empirical parts of the work are presented, as well as conclusions on the hypotheses put forward, the practical significance of the study is substantiated and possible prospects for the further development of this problem are described.

No description available.