The study examined interactions between morogo plants, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Fusarium species. Morogo refers to traditional leafy vegetables that, together with maize porridge, are dominant staple foods in rural areas of the Limpopo Province such as the Dikgale Demographic Surveillance Site (DDSS). Morogo plants grow either as weeds (often among maize), occur naturally in the field or are cultivated as subsistence crops by rural communities. Botanical species of morogo plants consumed in the DDSS were determined. Colonisation of morogo plant roots by AMF and Fusarium species composition in the immediate soil environment were investigated in four of eight DDSS subsistence communities, Isolated AMF were shown to belong to the genera Acaulospora and Glomus. Twelve Fusarium species were isolated from soil among which Fusariurn verticilliodes and Fusarium proliferaturn occurred predominantly. Greenhouse pot trials were conducted to examine the effect of AMF on morogo plant growth (cowpea; Mgna unguiculata) and Fusarium proliferatum levels in soil, Interaction between plants and AMF, as well as tripartite interactions of cowpea plants, AMF and Fusarium proliferatum were investigated. Non-inoculated cowpea plants served as controls for the following inoculations of cowpea in pots: (i) Fusarium proliferatum; (ii) commercial AMF from Mycoroot (PTY) Ltd. (a mixture of selected indigenous Glomus spp referred to commercial AMF for the purpose of this study); (iii) indigenous AMF obtained from DDSS soil (referred to iocal AMF for the purpose of this study); (iv) commercial AMF plus Fusarium proliferatum; (v) local AMF plus Fusariurn proliferatum. Results showed reduced root colonization by local as well as commercial AMF when Fusarium proliferatum were present. Local AMF significantly enhanced cowpea growth while commercial AMF apparently reduced the level of Fusarium proliferatum in the rhizosphere and surrounding soil. Results suggest that AMF may have potential as biological growth enhancers and bioprotective agents against Fusarium proliferatum. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science (Water Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

The role of agriculture in rural development is widely documented in literature. Many analysts regard agriculture, specifically small-scale agriculture, as the cornerstone for viable and sustainable economic growth. Furthermore, the agricultural sector is seen as an effective instrument for poverty reduction, particularly in rural communities of developing countries where a large amount of poor people are concentrated. Indeed, analysts now agree that developing the agricultural sector is perhaps one of the most effective ways to address high levels of poverty evident in the developing world, and call on the world leaders to commit themselves to direct more investment into this sector. Using the avocado industry in Giheta-Burundi, this dissertation argues that some emerging crops (such as avocados) present enormous opportunities to income generation for small-scale farmers with the potentiality of diversifying cash crop farming in Burundi, an area currently dominated by coffee, tea and cotton. This study further suggests that avocado farming presents the economic, market and health potentiality to contribute to a viable and sustainable rural economy in Giheta Burundi, thereby reducing levels of poverty in this area. The main research question is as follows: “To what extent does the production of avocados benefit the income and wellbeing of small-scale farming households in Giheta?” Accordingly, the main policy concern is that if avocados are playing a crucial role for income generation, wellbeing and diet of the small-scale farmers in Giheta, the avocado sector needs to be substantially supported by both the private and public sectors in order to increase the capacity of avocado production in this area and subsequently enable small-scale farmers to gain greater income from this sector. All of which will contribute significantly to reducing levels of poverty in Giheta. This dissertation is 42 266 words in length excluding references and appendices. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

The burgeoning of subsistence agriculture in the townships of Bulawayo, the second largest city in Zimbabwe symbolizes a change in the use of urban space in many cities of the global South. The activity of subsistence agriculture, which in both colonial and post-colonial Zimbabwe has been highly regarded as a rural activity is now a common sight in most townships of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe (RAUF, 2007). Indeed the rise of subsistence agriculture in the residential areas of Bulawayo particularly in the township of Gwabalanda is leading to what I refer to as the ‘ruralization of urban space’, where through practises of subsistence agriculture, elements of rural life have slowly seeped into the everyday life of urbanites (cf. Rogerson, 1993:33; Zeleza, 1999:45). The thesis uses Lefebvre’s (1974) theory of Production of Space to investigate some of the conditions and factors that have influenced the ruralization of urban space in the township of Gwabalanda, as seen in the intensification of a rural-oriented activity of subsistence farm. Using primary data from 17 semi-structured interviews with Gwabalanda residents involved in farming, the thesis intended to interrogate the perceptions and attitudes Gwabalanda residents hold towards the changes in the use of urban space and also examine the possible benefits of urban farming. The investigation of subsistence farming in Gwabalanda led me to identify three complementing and overarching themes or factors that drive urban farming and the ruralization of urban space. The first two themes are the political and economic factors which seem to operate on a macro-level, whereas the other theme of socio-cultural factors functions at an individual or household level. Economic and political factors such unemployment, lack of income, high transport costs of moving food, political alienation and freedom were identified by Gwabalanda residents as important drivers of urban agriculture. On the other hand, socio-cultural aspects which included identity, traditional religion, socialization and changes in migration patterns appeared to be crucial motivators for cultivating urban spaces. The research study also found out that urban households that are engaged in subsistence farming are more food secure and generate extra income from selling some of the produced crops. The income generated is used to pay school fees, pay bills and buy farming inputs for the next planting season. Furthermore some households were sending excess farm produce to their rural homes.

The study examined interactions between morogo plants, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Fusarium species. Morogo refers to traditional leafy vegetables that, together with maize porridge, are dominant staple foods in rural areas of the Limpopo Province such as the Dikgale Demographic Surveillance Site (DDSS). Morogo plants grow either as weeds (often among maize), occur naturally in the field or are cultivated as subsistence crops by rural communities. Botanical species of morogo plants consumed in the DDSS were determined. Colonisation of morogo plant roots by AMF and Fusarium species composition in the immediate soil environment were investigated in four of eight DDSS subsistence communities, Isolated AMF were shown to belong to the genera Acaulospora and Glomus. Twelve Fusarium species were isolated from soil among which Fusariurn verticilliodes and Fusarium proliferaturn occurred predominantly. Greenhouse pot trials were conducted to examine the effect of AMF on morogo plant growth (cowpea; Mgna unguiculata) and Fusarium proliferatum levels in soil, Interaction between plants and AMF, as well as tripartite interactions of cowpea plants, AMF and Fusarium proliferatum were investigated. Non-inoculated cowpea plants served as controls for the following inoculations of cowpea in pots: (i) Fusarium proliferatum; (ii) commercial AMF from Mycoroot (PTY) Ltd. (a mixture of selected indigenous Glomus spp referred to commercial AMF for the purpose of this study); (iii) indigenous AMF obtained from DDSS soil (referred to iocal AMF for the purpose of this study); (iv) commercial AMF plus Fusarium proliferatum; (v) local AMF plus Fusariurn proliferatum. Results showed reduced root colonization by local as well as commercial AMF when Fusarium proliferatum were present. Local AMF significantly enhanced cowpea growth while commercial AMF apparently reduced the level of Fusarium proliferatum in the rhizosphere and surrounding soil. Results suggest that AMF may have potential as biological growth enhancers and bioprotective agents against Fusarium proliferatum. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science (Water Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008. / Full text also available online. Scroll down for electronic link.

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The broad objective of the study was poverty alleviation through the development of subsistence harvesters at Ngqushwa Municipality. The research objectives were to explore - ways of advancing from being subsistence level producers, opportunities available to these harvesters, if they, (subsistence harvesters), want to be commercialized and what actions do they need to take to become successful businesses. The study was conducted in the the coastal area of Ngqushwa Municipality. The researcher conducted face-to-face interviews with 2 key informants. The respondents provided information on the marine species harvested by the subsistence harvesters of the Ngqushwa Municipality and the type of tools they use for harvesting. They mentioned how subsistence harvesters could advance from subsistence level to producers, about opportunities available to these harvesters, and what actions they need to take if they want to become successful businesses. The key informants also informed the researcher that subsistence harvesters are now classified as Small Scale Fisheries and informed about villages that engage in subsistence harvesting within the Ngqushwa Municipality area. 15 subsistence harvesters were randomly sampled in Polar Park, Qolweni, Gcinisa and Wesley villages which fall under the Ngqushwa Municipality. These harvesters shared their willingness to move from subsistence to commercial fisheries. The use of storytelling interviews (4 subsistence), was also used by the researcher to get more information about their experiences and challenges. The survey was conducted over 7 days. One day in June, 2016 and 6 days in September, 2016. The total number of people interviewed was 21, made up of 2 key informants, 15 subsistence and 4 story telling interviews. The results showed that the community of subsistence harvesters is very discontented because they do not benefit from the sea and the marine resources although they live near the ocean. They also believe that in 22 years of democracy there is no way forward from the government. They are irate as they have witnessed the top down management style from the government. The current subsistence harvesters have little or no formal school education, (23% with no formal schooling at all, 23% with high school education between grades 8 - 12). Without the educational and skills programs from the government the subsistence harvesters will not be able to grow and create further employment opportunities for the rest of the community of Ngqushwa Municipality. The following recommendations have suggested that co-management must come from the community. It must not be people from parliament who do not feel the pain the communities are suffering. The top down approach should stop and a bottom up approach should be implemented, which will allow decisions to be made by the communities involved in harvesting. The government only needs to monitor. They (Government), have good policies, but are they are not monitored. The harvesters need training from the government. There is a need for the formulation of a development forum with learned people, churches, community leaders, young people, women, disabled, and the fishing community all represented. There is also need of support in terms of equipment, boats and education. The government needs to conduct training on fisheries and business management and provide financial support and assistance with business plans.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Climate change poses a major threat to both the well-being of people and the environment. Subsistence farmers are particularly affected because they rely on local supply systems that are sensitive to climate variation. The aim of the study was to explore psychological resilience factors associated with climate change adaptation by subsistence farmers in a rural farming community in Maruleng Municipality in Limpopo Province (South Africa). The objectives of the study were to: investigate subsistence farmers' notions of climate change and adaptation; determine the psychological resilience factors influencing the farmers’ adaptation the climate change; determine strategies that the farmers use to cope with climate change; and, based on the farmers’ notions of climate change and adaptation, and the associated resilience factors, develop a psychological explanatory model on climate change adaptation by subsistence farmers. Data were collected through direct interactions with participants using a grounded theory research design. An open-ended interview guide was used to collect data with a sample of 15 participants selected through theoretical sampling within the Maruleng Municipality. The research findings indicate that farmers have limited conceptual knowledge relating to climate change and its causes. The results further indicated that participants have become resilient to climate change through mitigation strategies including mulching, adaptive irrigation techniques and being innovative. From a psychological perspective, the subsistence farmers’ resilience factors that emerged included passion for farming, hope, enthusiasm, courage, acceptance or tolerance, livelihood and a coherent belief system. Based on the findings of the study, a psychological explanatory model in climate change adaptation by subsistence farmers was developed. The explanatory model suggests that resilience factors are influenced by notions and adaptations of climate change. The study is concluded by, among others, recommending that counseling services be made available to farmers to help them deal with the stress associated with the negative impact of climate change.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa is rich in biodiversity among which are semi-domesticated vegetable species which are known as wild or indigenous vegetables. These wild indigenous vegetables have been reported to be good in nutritional qualities such as macro and micronutrients. However, there is still a high prevalence of malnutrition; especially micronutrient deficiencies among low or marginal income bracket of the population. The use of indigenous vegetables has been proposed as part of the solutions to the problems of micronutrient malnutrition among these populations. Indigenous vegetables are an important source of food in the maize based subsistence farming sector of rural South Africa. Their main role is as relish as they are used as an accompaniment for staple cereal based diets. They are also generally reported to be rich in micronutrients. Although they may be consumed in small quantities, they influence the intake of cereal staples, manage hunger and play a central role in household food security for the poorer rural groups. Mixing several indigenous vegetables species in one meal contributes to dietary diversity in terms of more vegetable types as well as in terms of choice of relish. For some very poor families indigenous vegetables are substitutes for some food crops. The seasonal occurrence of these vegetables leaves many families without a food source during the off-season. Indigenous vegetables increase agro-biodiversity at the household level. This agro-biodiversity helps in buffering against the accumulation and multiplication of pests and diseases and provides important cover for the soil. Further research on agronomic, social and economic dimensions is required to understand the roles of IV in subsistence farming systems in South Africa. The survey study revealed that indigenous vegetables were important in the diets of most rural people in the study area. They were consumed as relish although they were not being cultivated. Their method of acquisition was gathering from homesteads and the wild. These vegetables were also believed to be medicinal. The local naming of wild vegetables varied among villages in the same district such that a vegetable in one village was assigned to a different species of vegetable in another village. They were reportedly abundant during summer and there was a decrease in availability off-season leaving vulnerable people who rely on them with a food shortage. The utilisation of wild vegetables among South Africans is reported to be declining due to over reliance on introduced temperate species. Efforts to domesticate and cultivate wild vegetables could be hampered by several factors including seed dormancy and premature flowering. In this present study dormancy was observed in C. olitorius. The response of wild genotypes of C. olitorius with different seed sizes to various dry heat and hot water treatments was evaluated. Steeping seeds in boiling water (95oC) for ten seconds and soaking seeds in a hot water bath at 80oC for ten minutes resulted in the highest response to germination in this species. The study also recorded significant interactions between heat treatment and seed sizes. We concluded that C. olitorius seeds of different sizes require diverse durations of exposure to heat treatment methods to break dormancy caused by an impermeable seed coat. Cleome gynandra is another species that is consumed as a vegetable in various parts of the world including Africa. The plant is also used as a medicinal herb for the treatment of various human diseases. Among the wild vegetables, C. gynandra has been reported to flower prematurely, a phenomenon known as bolting and common in many vegetable crops. Premature flowering (bolting) can be as a response to temperature extremes and photoperiod and affects many other leafy vegetables such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa), spinach (Spinacea oleracea) and mustard rape (Brassica juncea). Bolting leads to production losses in leaf vegetable crops as they flower before they have produced an economic yield. The removal of flowers and nitrogen application resulted in significant increases in the fresh and dry weight of cleome leaves. Removal of flowers resulted in a 46% increase in fresh weight of leaves. The observed positive response of leaf yield to removal of flowers offers a possible way to deal with the problem of bolting. The continuous removal of the flowers leads to increased utilisable leaf yield. The application of incremental amounts of nitrogen top dressing results in increased leaf yield in C. gynandra. The response of selected indigenous vegetables (Corchorus olitorius and Amaranthus cruentus) to micronutrients added to the soil was compared with the response of a reference crop; Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris var. cicla). For all the levels of micronutrients applied, Swiss chard accumulated Cu, Zn and Mn in the leaves at significantly (p<0.01) higher concentrations than the wild vegetables. Variations between the vegetables in the micronutrients were greater for Zn (72–363 ppm) and Mn (97.9–285.9 ppm) for Cu (8.8–14 ppm). C. olitorius had the least capacity to concentrate Mn and Zn in the leaf, which suggested that this vegetable is a less attractive candidate for agronomic bio-fortification of these elements. However, C. olitorius accumulated Fe at a significantly higher concentration (327 ppm) in the leaves than did Amaranthus (222 ppm) or Swiss chard (295 ppm). Sulphur as a macronutrient varied little in the plant species tested. The mean S concentration in the leaves ranged from 0.26% in C. olitorius to 0.34% in Amaranthus cruentus and Swiss chard. We concluded that the different vegetables have different abilities to take up Cu and Zn in the order Swiss chard > Amaranthus > Corchorus, and that they responded to micronutrients added to the soil but only up to certain limits of supplementation. The results from this current study seem to contradict the belief that wild vegetables have the inherent ability to concentrate mineral micronutrients in their tissue. Factors such as environment, anti-nutrients, dietary diversity, plant parts, plant age, and varieties result in differences in reported nutritional composition of indigenous vegetables. Post-harvest handling, storage, cooking and preservation also alter the composition. The need to optimise protocols for each vegetable type and for different laboratories makes analysis expensive. Equipment and methods of analysis are varied and may not be comparable, making it difficult to generalise on the composition of these vegetables. The Agricultural Research Council of South Africa and other stake holders are conducting studies on some aspects of these vegetables. There are still many information gaps regarding many aspects of these vegetables which require research attention. These include; the selection and improvement of genotypes, seed biology and germination studies, agronomic (population, fertiliser, crop mixtures) studies and phyto-chemical evaluation of these important species in order to encourage the overall use of these important indigenous resources. Finally, there is need to promote their increased utilisation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid- Afrika is ryk aan biodiversiteit waaronder half-mak groente spesies, wat as wilde of inheemse groente bekend is, voorkom. Hierdie wilde inheemse groente is aangedui om goed in voedingswaarde te wees met voldoende makro-en mikrovoedingstowwe. Daar is egter nogsteeds 'n hoë voorkoms van wanvoeding, veral tekorte aan mikronutriënte onder die lae of marginale inkomstegroep van die bevolking. Die gebruik van inheemse groente word voorgestel as deel van die oplossing van die probleem van wanvoeding onder hierdie bevolkings. Inheemse groente is 'n belangrike bron van voedsel in die mielie gebaseerde bestaansboerdery sektor van landelike Suid-Afrika. Hul vernaamste rol is as smoor waar dit gebruik word tesame met stapelvoedsel in ʼn graan-gebaseerde dieet. Hierdie groentes was oor die algemeen ook aangedui om ryk te wees in mikrovoedingstowwe. Hoewel hulle verteer kan word in klein hoeveelhede, beïnvloed hulle die inname van graan stapelvoedsel, en speel 'n sentrale rol in huishoudelike voedselsekuriteit vir die armer landelike groepe. Vermenging van verskeie inheemse groente spesies in een maaltyd dra by tot die dieet diversiteit in terme van meer groentesoorte sowel as in terme van die keuse van smaak. Vir 'n paar baie arm gesinne is inheemse groentes die plaasvervanger vir gewone groente gewasse. Die seisoenale voorkoms van hierdie groente laat baie gesinne sonder 'n bron van voedsel gedurende die af-seisoen. Inheemse groente verhoog landbou-biodiversiteit op ʼn huishoudelike vlak . Hierdie landbou-biodiversiteit help buffer teen die opbou en vermeerdering van peste en siektes en bied belangrike dekking vir die grond. Verdere navorsing op akkerbou-, maatskaplike en ekonomiese aspekte is nodig om die rolle van inheemse groentes in bestaansboerdery in Suid-Afrika te verstaan. Die studie opname het getoon dat inheemse groente belangrik was in die dieet van die meeste mense van die platteland in die studie area. Hierdie groentes was gebruik as smoor hoewel hulle nie gekweek word nie. Hul metode van verkryging is deur dit te versamel van huise en die natuur. Die groentes word ook as medisinaal beskou. Die plaaslike benaming van wilde groente het gewissel tussen dorpe in dieselfde distrik, tot so 'n mate dat die benaming van groente tussen dorpe verskil. Hulle was na bewering volop in die somer, en daar was 'n afname in die beskikbaarheid af-seisoen, wat kwesbare mense, wat staatmaak op hul voorkoms, met 'n tekort aan kos laat. Die benutting van wilde groente onder Suid-Afrikaners daal as gevolg van die afhanklikheid in nuwe spsies. Pogings om te mak en wilde groente te kweek, kan belemmer word deur verskeie faktore, insluitend saaddormansie en voortydige blom. In hierdie studie was dormansie waargeneem in C. olitorius. Die reaksie van wilde genotipes van C. olitorius met verskillende saad groottes op verskeie droë hitte en warm water behandelings, was geëvalueer. Sade was geweek in kookwater ( 95oC ) vir tien sekondes en ander in 'n warm water bad by 80oC vir tien minute, en het gelei tot die hoogste reaksie op ontkieming in hierdie spesie. Die studie het ook belangrike interaksies tussen hitte behandeling en saad groottes getoon. Ons het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat C. olitorius sade van verskillende groottes diverse duur van blootstelling vereis en ook so m.b.t. die ondeurdringbare saadhuid. Cleome gynandra is nog 'n spesie wat as 'n groente in verskeie dele van die wêreld, insluitend Afrika verbruik word. Die plant word ook gebruik as 'n medisinale plant vir die behandeling van verskeie siektes van die mens. Onder die wilde groente, was C. gynandra aangedui om vroeg te blom, 'n verskynsel wat bekend staan as “bolting” en is algemeen in baie groente gewasse. Voortydige blom (vas) kan wees as 'n reaksie op die temperatuur uiterstes en fotoperiode en raak ook baie ander groen groente soos blaarslaai (Lactuca sativa) , spinasie (Spinacea oleracea) en mosterd (Brassica juncea ) . “Bolting” lei ook tot produksie verliese in blaar groentegewasse as hulle blom voordat hulle 'n ekonomiese opbrengs opgelewer het. Die verwydering van blomme en stikstof toediening het gelei tot 'n aansienlike toename in die vars en droë gewig van Cleome blare. Verwydering van blomme het gelei tot 'n toename van 46% in vars gewig van die blare. Die waargenome positiewe reaksie van die blaar opbrengs deur verwydering van blomme bied 'n moontlike manier om die “bolting” probleem te hanteer. Die voortdurende verwydering van die blomme lei tot verhoogde bruikbare blaar opbrengs. Die toepassing van toenemende stikstof topbemesting het verhoogde blaar opbrengs in C. gynandra tot gevolg. Die reaksie van geselekteerde inheemse groente (Corchorus olitorius en Amaranthus spp ) met mikrovoedingstowwe toegevoeg tot die grond, is in vergelyk met die reaksie van 'n verwysings gewas; spinasiebeet (Beta vulgaris var cicla . ). Vir al die vlakke van mikronutriente toegepas, was die spinasiebeet opgehoopte Cu , Zn en Mn in die blare, in beduidend (p <0.01 ) hoër konsentrasies as die wilde groente.

Agriculture forms the livelihood basis of several billion people around the world. Despite the increasing trend for rural to urban migration the problems associated with poverty are expected to remain predominantly rural for some time into the future. The challenges associated with rural poverty are particularly important in South Africa where the remaining effects of the oppressive apartheid regime are still vividly evident. The rural population are often stranded in areas of stagnant economic growth and minimal employment opportunities further compounded by low levels of education. The livelihoods of these rural communities, in the former homelands, are often confined to a heavy reliance on remittance incomes and agriculture. However, in the recent past the level of agricultural activity in these rural homelands appears to be declining. This has direct implications for the development agenda in these rural areas. This study is an examination of the various dynamics which have affected the subsistence agriculture sector within a specific community in the former homeland of KwaZulu in Southern KwaZulu-Natal. The responses of 12 respondents, representing independent households, were recorded along with four purpositive interviews with relevant role players in the agricultural sector and in the rural community. The responses shed some light on the multifaceted dynamics which have played an important role in how individual households and the community at large make livelihood choices and how subsistence agriculture fits into these decisions. An increasing reliance on money as the basis of livelihood decisions is resulting in the reliance on agriculture shifting away from a central foundation of household livelihood towards a more supplementary form of food source and risk diversion. Shifting cultural norms have resulted in women and the youth becoming less involved in farming practices in general, which may have been influenced by the expansion of social grants into the rural communities. The changes in dynamics which influence local community and household livelihood decisions are important to consider when determining a possible development initiative in these rural areas. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.