Le Sénégal est situé dans une zone soudano-sahélienne particulièrement exposée aux changements du climat, ce dernier rendant l’agriculture, activité principale du pays, précaire. La modification des conditions climatiques, en particulier depuis la fin des années 1960, a fortement affaibli le secteur agricole, majoritairement vivrier et pluvial. Face à l’importance de l’activité agraire vivrière du pays, il apparaît primordial de savoir comment les agriculteurs vivriers du Sénégal ont modifié ou prévoit modifier leurs pratiques en vue de satisfaire leurs besoins alimentaires dans un contexte de changement et de variabilité du climat. Cette étude a été effectuée au sein de la communauté rurale de Sessène selon une approche qualitative et à l’aide d’entretiens, de l’observation participante et d’analyse phénoménologique. Elle a permis de mettre en avant les caractéristiques générales des familles agraires et des exploitations de cette zone, de montrer comment les agriculteurs ont vécu le changement climatique et comment ils envisagent les prochaines années et enfin de discuter de leur capacité d’adaptation. Face au raccourcissement de la saison des pluies, à la diminution des précipitations, à l’intensification des évènements extrêmes et aux impacts de ces modifications sur l’environnement naturel, les agriculteurs vivriers adoptent des mesures aussi bien techniques que socio-économiques. / Senegal is located in a sudano-sahelian region vulnerable to climate change that renders agriculture, the country's main activity, precarious. In fact, changing climate conditions, particularly since the late 1960s, have considerably weakened the agricultural sector, which is mostly subsistence and pluvial in nature. Because of the importance of the country’s subsistence agriculture, it is imperative to know how subsistence farmers in Senegal have changed or will change their practices in order to satisfy their nutritional requirements in the context of climate change and variability. This study was undertaken in the rural community of Sessène using a qualitative approach composed on interviews, participant observation and phenomenological analysis. The research revealed the general characteristics of the agrarian families and farms, demonstrated how farmers dealt with climate change in the recent past and how they envisage doing so in the next few years, all aimed at contributing to a discussion of their adaptive capacity. In response to the shortening of the rainy season, the decrease in rainfall, the increased frequency of extreme events and the impacts of these changes on the natural environment, subsistence farmers are adopting both technical and socio-economic measures.

Subsistence maize production has long been a dominant economic activity of households in Santiago Apóstol, a Zapotec community in the Central Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. A baseline study from 1973 documents a regionally pervasive form of household level agriculture whereby cultivators prioritize land for subsistence maize above commercial crops. Since then, much has transformed the face of rural Mexico, including migration to the United States. Migration accelerated beginning in the 1970s as a response to government disinvestment in maize, but it may also be a new force of cultural and economic change impacting agriculture. The question arises, has migration modified longstanding subsistence agricultural practices centered on local varieties of rainfed maize? If not, what might explain the continuities and changes in agricultural practice observed? Ethnographic land use and maize consumption surveys among 19 migrant headed households conducted in Santiago Apóstol in the summer and winter of 2012 indicate that mean production of maize remains equivalent to that documented in the late 1960s, suggesting that migration has not engendered a generalized shift to commercial crops. Potential explanations for the persistent use of rainfed, local maize among migrant headed households are drawn from a mixed methods methodology involving triangulated analyses of household economic data, land tenure arrangements, perceptions of environmental change, participant observation, and archival research. Triangulated analyses allow speculation on linked human environmental changes in the landscape that may have reinforced use of a traditional, rainfed grain crop.

Thesis (MDev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / Smallholder subsistence agriculture is regarded as an approach that can be adopted by poor rural households to meet their food and nutritional requirements. The practice of smallholder subsistence agriculture is a basis upon which poor households can enhance their household food security through increased incomes and food supply, ultimately generating extra income for other household needs. The present study discusses and analyses the importance of smallholder subsistence agriculture as an effective method easily available to households residing in rural areas to access food and incomes for household purposes. Hence, the study seeks to explore and analyses the role of smallholder subsistence agriculture in contributing to household food security in rural areas. Both primary and secondary data have been used to analyze the factors for the purpose of the study. The primary data were collected through a designed survey questionnaire administered to sampled smallholder subsistence farmers in the study area. This study used purposive sampling technique, through a transect walk, to draw households involved in smallholder subsistence agriculture in Maroteng Village. From the total population in the study area, only 100 households were selected for the purposes of the study. Both descriptive and qualitative techniques were used to analyze salient variables of the practice in order to give an insight of the important role the sector can play in addressing poverty, enhancing incomes and creating employment, consequently contributing to household food security in rural areas. The study shows that the participation on smallholder subsistence farming by households in rural areas could have positive impact on food security situations.

Thesis (M.A. Admin. (Development)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014. / Smallholder subsistence agriculture is regarded as an approach that can be adopted by poor rural households to meet their food and nutritional requirements. The practice of smallholder subsistence agriculture is a basis upon which poor households can enhance their household food security through increased incomes and food supply, ultimately generating extra income for other household needs. The present study discusses and analyses the importance of smallholder subsistence agriculture as an effective method easily available to households residing in rural areas to access food and incomes for household purposes. Hence, the study seeks to explore and analyses the role of smallholder subsistence agriculture in contributing to household food security in rural areas. Both primary and secondary data have been used to analyze the factors for the purpose of the study. The primary data were collected through a designed survey questionnaire administered to sampled smallholder subsistence farmers in the study area. This study used purposive sampling technique, through a transect walk, to draw households involved in smallholder subsistence agriculture in Maroteng Village. From the total population in the study area, only 100 households were selected for the purposes of the study. Both descriptive and qualitative techniques were used to analyze salient variables of the practice in order to give an insight of the important role the sector can play in addressing poverty, enhancing incomes and creating employment, consequently contributing to household food security in rural areas. The study shows that the participation on smallholder subsistence farming by households in rural areas could have positive impact on food security situations.

The majority of the rural population in developing countries sustains their livelihoods through small-scale family farming on subsistence level. However, agricultural productivity is far from its potential and food insecurity and high absolute poverty rates are widespread challenges in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA), including Mozambique. Global actors, such as the World Bank (WB), frequently publish policy guidelines, strategy papers and reports, all aiming at tackling the focal problem of low agricultural productivity and claiming to be dedicated to the overall goal of economic, social, inclusive and sustainable development. But as agricultural productivity rates in many developing countries remain low, and food insecurity rates have been high for several decades, the adequacy of global policy guidelines for local structures, conditions and needs is questionable. The aim of this study is therefore to analyze the suitability of and identify possible discrepancies between global strategies – that claim to raise agricultural productivity and food security – and the local level. A strong emphasis is placed on a people-centered, local grassroots perspective. To gather data, a five-week field study in Lago District, Mozambique, was carried out, following an abductive approach and using semi-structured interviews on household level, and with a variety of other stakeholders from the public and private sector. The Logical Framework Approach was applied to structure the findings from the WB report and from the field work, with the aim to create a basis for the analysis and comparison of that data, which provides an answer to the research problem of the suitability of global policies on local level. Additional analytical guidance is provided by the concept of human security and a gender perspective. Conclusions from the study demonstrate that the neoliberal point of departure and the different understandings of small-scale farming underlying the problem and objective of (low) agricultural productivity rates identified by the WB, are not coherent in comparison to the local situation identified in Lago District. The development interventions suggested by the WB rather tend to be an obstacle for sustainable rural and agricultural development, as well as local food security/sovereignty, poverty alleviation and inclusive economic growth in the context of Lago District.

In this Master's of Public Issues Anthropology thesis I examine the perceptions of health and healthcare services within a small rural subsistence farming community in South-Western Paraguay from a political ecology of health perspective. Qualitative research data was collected from May to September of 2010 in Lindo Manantial, a subsistence farming village, and Piribebuy, the closest town to Lindo Manantial and the location of the nearest health centre, the Piribebuy Centro de Salud. The primary goals of this research project were to gain an ethnographic understanding of current local health perspectives and concerns, as well as the local frameworks for health provision in Piribebuy. I argue that the introduction of culturally competent healthcare services could greatly improve individual and community health statuses and outcomes in Lindo Manantial and other similar rural subsistence farming communities in Paraguay. / Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)

The Nguni sheep of Zululand, South Africa, are called the Zulu sheep. They are a source of food and cash for the rural farmers of KwaZulu-Natal. There is insufficient information available about the characteristics of this breed and accordingly the breed is classified as “insecure”. Documentation of characteristics of a breed is important for its utilisation, improvement or conservation. This study was undertaken to document (i) the utilization of the Zulu sheep, (ii) some morphological characteristics, (iii) establishing a cost effective body measurement recording means and (iv) the intra- and inter-population genetic variation of the breed using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. A survey was conducted to investigate the socio-economic and cultural values of the farmers attached to livestock including the Zulu sheep. A total of 76 rural farmers were interviewed in the areas of the Mhlathuze district in northern KwaZulu-Natal. Constraints and the indigenous knowledge of the farmers on livestock production were also recorded. The results confirmed that the Zulu sheep in the rural areas are indeed used as a source of protein and cash when necessary. Farmers reported that the Zulu sheep are tolerant to ticks and able to withstand the hot and humid conditions of northern KwaZulu-Natal. Goats and cattle as well as the Zulu sheep are also used for payment of dues in the tribal courts. Even so, Zulu sheep are not used for any cultural purposes. The system of management is fairly extensive. Some farmers apply indigenous knowledge as part of management practices. For instance, they use indigenous plants as nutrient supplements and for increasing the reproduction rate of these animals. Lack of modern animal husbandry skills was declared by the farmers as one of the main challenges. A perception among the farmers was that the Government could assist in addressing this challenge. Three populations of Zulu sheep reared extensively in three localities were used for the morphometric and genetic studies. The areas were the community of KwaMthethwa (Enqutshini), University of Zululand (UNIZULU) and Makhathini Research Station. Makhathini and KwaMthethwa are 260 and 40 km, respectively, away from UNIZULU. The morphometric study was undertaken to determine the extent of phenotypic diversity between Zulu sheep populations using six morphological characteristics. Effects of some factors (location, age, sex and season) on some of these traits were estimated. Results showed that the size of the body measurements, wither height (WH), heart girth (HG), live weight (LW) and scrotal circumference (SC) were significantly different between the populations. Variation in these body measurements was influenced significantly by the location, season, the sex and the age of sheep. Mature ewes weighed up to 32 kg whereas the rams weighed up to 38 kg. The differences in LW, HG and WH between the seasons were small. The SC increased with the age of the ram up to 28 cm for mature rams. Other traits observed were the colour and the ear length of Zulu sheep. Ear size ranged from ear buds to the most common large ears (9 to 14 cm). The dominating colours observed were brown and a combination of brown and white. Live weight prediction equations were estimated employing HG, WH and SC data. The LW prediction equations showed that the regression of HG and WH produce the best estimate equations of LW; however the HG alone also showed reliable LW estimates. Scrotal circumference was more precise for estimating the LW of younger rams below 22 months of age (R2 = 0.64 – 0.78). Fifty-two Zulu sheep from the three locations were used to assess the genetic variation within the Zulu sheep breed. A total of 2744 RAPD bands were generated ranging from 0.2 to 2 kb; ~46% of these bands were polymorphic. The genetic diversity was the lowest (5.17%) within the UNIZULU population, 8.62% within the KwaMthethwa population and highest (11.04%) within the Makhathini population. The genetic diversity between all populations was estimated at 21.91 %. Phenotypic diversity was relatively similar for the UNIZULU and Makhathini populations (41.25% and 45.63%, respectively). The phenotypic diversity between the three populations was 48.26%. Genetic and phenotypic diversity was lower for Makhathini and UNIZULU populations than for the KwaMthethwa population. It was concluded that the Zulu sheep is a smaller sized breed compared to the other South African indigenous sheep breeds like the Dorper which has been reported to have some similar characteristics to the Nguni sheep. The results confirmed that the Zulu breed has the capacity to survive without dipping and supplements during the dry season. This adaptation is of value to the communities of KwaZulu-Natal. Such characteristics warrant conserving the breed to prevent genetic erosion. The phenotypic and genetic diversity between the three populations of Zulu sheep may indicate that there is an opportunity of genetic exploitation by selecting animals based on phenotypic as well as genetic characteristics. In order to promote the conservation and sustainable use of the Zulu sheep, it was recommended that an open nucleus breeding scheme from lower-tier flocks (of the farmers) for pure breeding to nucleus flocks (in Government ranches) could be appropriate. The scheme would also address the challenges of animal husbandry as well as contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of the farmers. Farmers could use a tape measure to estimate the LW of sheep when they cannot afford scales. The morphological characteristics and the genetic diversity data generated from this study could be combined into a single data base for this sheep breed. More extensive studies, using the same or some additional phenotypic characters such as reproductive performance, need to be done. Genetic characteristics of Zulu sheep using microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA should be done to complement the present study. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Le Sénégal est situé dans une zone soudano-sahélienne particulièrement exposée aux changements du climat, ce dernier rendant l’agriculture, activité principale du pays, précaire. La modification des conditions climatiques, en particulier depuis la fin des années 1960, a fortement affaibli le secteur agricole, majoritairement vivrier et pluvial. Face à l’importance de l’activité agraire vivrière du pays, il apparaît primordial de savoir comment les agriculteurs vivriers du Sénégal ont modifié ou prévoit modifier leurs pratiques en vue de satisfaire leurs besoins alimentaires dans un contexte de changement et de variabilité du climat. Cette étude a été effectuée au sein de la communauté rurale de Sessène selon une approche qualitative et à l’aide d’entretiens, de l’observation participante et d’analyse phénoménologique. Elle a permis de mettre en avant les caractéristiques générales des familles agraires et des exploitations de cette zone, de montrer comment les agriculteurs ont vécu le changement climatique et comment ils envisagent les prochaines années et enfin de discuter de leur capacité d’adaptation. Face au raccourcissement de la saison des pluies, à la diminution des précipitations, à l’intensification des évènements extrêmes et aux impacts de ces modifications sur l’environnement naturel, les agriculteurs vivriers adoptent des mesures aussi bien techniques que socio-économiques. / Senegal is located in a sudano-sahelian region vulnerable to climate change that renders agriculture, the country's main activity, precarious. In fact, changing climate conditions, particularly since the late 1960s, have considerably weakened the agricultural sector, which is mostly subsistence and pluvial in nature. Because of the importance of the country’s subsistence agriculture, it is imperative to know how subsistence farmers in Senegal have changed or will change their practices in order to satisfy their nutritional requirements in the context of climate change and variability. This study was undertaken in the rural community of Sessène using a qualitative approach composed on interviews, participant observation and phenomenological analysis. The research revealed the general characteristics of the agrarian families and farms, demonstrated how farmers dealt with climate change in the recent past and how they envisage doing so in the next few years, all aimed at contributing to a discussion of their adaptive capacity. In response to the shortening of the rainy season, the decrease in rainfall, the increased frequency of extreme events and the impacts of these changes on the natural environment, subsistence farmers are adopting both technical and socio-economic measures.

Ethno-archaeological evidence shows that taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott] originated in Asia. It may have been brought into South Africa a few hundred years after 300 BC from Madagascar, where Malaysian settlers introduced it about 300 BC. The crop is grown in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, largely for subsistence on farms. In South Africa, taro is mainly produced in the subtropical coastal belt, stretching from Bizana in the Eastern Cape to the KwaZulu-Natal north coast. Although it is a staple crop for the subsistence farmers who grow it, there are no data on taro agronomy in South Africa. The hypothesis of this study was that traditional knowledge about taro production practices is not adequate to form a basis for agronomic and extension interventions to promote the status of the crop to that of a commercial commodity. A survey was conducted at two districts in KwaZulu-Natal, Umbumbulu and Ndwedwe, where taro is a staple crop. The objective of the survey was to determine the cultural practices associated with taro production, including knowledge about varieties, agronomy, plant protection, storage and marketing. Qualitative data obtained from the survey was used to plan an investigation into the agronomy of taro. The survey showed that subsistence farmers at Ndwedwe and Umbumbulu used traditional methods for taro production that had very small influence from the extension services from the Department of Agriculture. The farmers identified three varieties of taro, which they designated as the "red", "white" and "Zulu" types. The "red" and "white" designations were based on consistent crop morphological characteristics. This finding confirmed the reliability of indigenous knowledge for crop classification.The survey also revealed that wetland and dryland conditions are used to produce taro. At Umbumbulu, production occurred predominantly under dryland conditions, whereas at Ndwedwe there was an almost even utilisation of both wetlands and drylands. At both locations, the farmers estimated plant spacing using their feet, which showed that the plant populations would be about 18400 plants ha(-1). Full corms were a predominant type of propagation material. In the light of the survey findings about site types (wetland or dryland), propagation material and plant spacing for taro production, field experiments were designed to 1) determine the effect of site type on taro production, 2) compare three propagule types (full corm, full corm with a shoot and half corm) in taro production and 3) examine the effect of planting density (18400, 24600 and 37000 plants ha(-1) on the performance of propagules with respect to production under wetland and dryland conditions. Field experiments showed that wetland cultivation improved taro yield by 40% compared with dryland production. However, in each of the two site categories, there were significant differences between sites. Using full corms with shoots also enhanced taro yield (42% > full corms without shoots and 66% > half corms), when means were determined across all sites and planting densities. Increasing planting density also caused an increase in taro production (4.9 t ha (-1), 6.8 t ha (-1) and 11.5 t ha (-1), for 18400,24600 and 37000 plants ha,(-1), respectively; LSD (0.05) = 1.4 t ha,1). The enhanced performance of taro under wetland conditions, where corms with a shoot were used and at high planting densities may have been associated with photosynthetic efficiency. Wetland conditions and corms with shoots improved plant emergence and plant growth, which are essential agronomic conditions for efficient capture of the sun's energy for photosynthesis. It is proposed that using propagules with shoots and high plant populations under dryland conditions could enhance taro production. Although wetland cultivation enhanced yield, the survey showed that the total area of land that could be used for wetland cultivation at Ndwedwe and Umbumbulu was too small to warrant sustainable wetland production. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Since South Africa’s democratic transition poverty, especially in terms of income, has persisted. Poverty reduction strategies must focus on closing the gaps of current policies which miss the poorest. Specifically, attention must be paid to those living in rural areas. While the use of agriculture as a poverty reduction strategy was envisioned by government as one of the key components of land reform and rural advancement, its potential has been limited as South Africa agriculture in the post-apartheid era is challenged with providing opportunities and support for small-scale farming systems. It was thus the aim of this dissertation to address part of this crisis by engaging with smallscale farmers in an attempt to understand the barriers and opportunities that they confront when accessing inputs needed for agricultural production that contributes towards their livelihoods. This was explored through a case study in which two focus groups and ten qualitative interviews were conducted. Through this it was found that land is being used productively by resource poor farmers as a pathway from poverty. The inability to purchase fencing and the lack of easy access to water proved to be the two most significant barriers to crop production while accessibility to seeds was found not to be an issue when controlling for financial limitations. Opportunities arose as respondents relied on interdependent relationships between the different assets in their possession. Overall, it was concluded that with a more appropriate support system which focused on overcoming the lack of information and resources, as well as the lack of services and infrastructure productivity could improve giving small farmers the potential to make a larger contribution to reducing poverty. / Thesis (M.Dev.Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.