Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:30:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-08-10Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:21:22Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_as_dr_rcla.pdf: 759090 bytes, checksum: 56c495dc70d5f1c711bc2c2170a55ad8 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O treinamento físico é considerado uma importante ferramenta no tratamento não farmacológico da hipertensão arterial por promover relaxamento vascular através de vários mecanismos. A L-arginina também tem sido relacionada a melhoria da função endotelial e vasorrelaxamento. No entanto, a influência do exercício físico e da Larginina na resposta vasodilatadora mediada pelos adrenoceptores β adrenérgicos vasculares ainda não está esclarecida O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos de um programa de treinamento físico e da suplementação de L-arginina na reatividade vascular da artéria femoral de ratos Wistar. Animais com idade de 12 semanas foram randomicamente divididos em quatro grupos: sedentários (SD), treinados (TR), sedentários que suplementaram L-arginina (SD-ARG), e treinados que suplementaram L-arginina (TR-ARG). Os grupos treinados realizaram exercício de corrida em esteira durante um mês, cinco dias por semana, em sessões com duração de 60 minutos, e velocidade de 1,2 Km/h. Os grupos suplementados tiveram 1,25 g de L-arginina adicionado a cada litro da água de beber, pelo mesmo período do protocolo de treinamento físico. Quarenta e oito horas após o protocolo experimental, os animais foram sacrificados, e suas porções proximais da artéria femoral direita foram dissecadas e colocados em solução de Krebs-Ringer. Curvas concentração-efeito foram feitas para o isoproterenol (1nM – 10uM), após pré contração com fenilefrina (1 uM) em anéis íntegros ou desnudados de endotélio. Observou-se que a combinação de Treinamento físico e suplementação de Larginina, promoveu redução significativa do peso corporal dos animais, sem que treinamento ou suplementação isoladamente promovessem o mesmo efeito. A sensibilidade β-adrenérgica se mostrou significativamente reduzida com o treinamento físico, isoladamente ou associado... / Physical training is an important tool as a non pharmacological treatment of the arterial hypertension because of its several mechanisms which promote vasorelaxation. L-arginine is reported to improve either endothelial function or vascular relaxation. However, the influence of the physical exercise associated with L-arginine supplementation in the vascular relaxation mediated by vascular β adrenoceptores is not elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the physical training and L-arginine supplementation in the reactivity of femoral artery. Male Wistar rats (12 weeks old), were randomly separated in four groups: sedentary (SD), trained (TR), sedentary plus L-arginine supplementation (SD-ARG) and Trained plus L-arginine supplementation (TR-ARG). Physical exercise consisted in a running program in a motor-driven treadmill during 4 weeks, 5 days per week, 60 minutes per session, in a speed of 1.2 Km/h. Larginine was administered during 4 weeks in the drinking water (1.25 g/L), starting concomitantly with the exercise program. Animals were sacrificed 48 hours after the last session of exercise and the proximal segments of the femoral artery were removed and placed in Krebs-Ringer solution. Concentration–response curves were obtained to isoproterenol (1nM – 10uM), in rings with intact or denuded endothelium, precontracted with phenylephrine (1uM). The association of physical training and L-arginine supplementation resulted in a significant decrease in the body weight. However, physical training or L-arginine alone did not promote the same effect. The β-adrenergic receptors sensitivity was significantly decreased after physical training or L-arginine supplementation at the pEC50 level (SD: 7.13 ± 0.05; TR: 6.93 ± 0.03; SD-ARG: 7.22 ± 0.02; TR-ARG: 6.90 ± 0.01), with no changes in the maximal responses... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Resumo: O treinamento físico é considerado uma importante ferramenta no tratamento não farmacológico da hipertensão arterial por promover relaxamento vascular através de vários mecanismos. A L-arginina também tem sido relacionada a melhoria da função endotelial e vasorrelaxamento. No entanto, a influência do exercício físico e da Larginina na resposta vasodilatadora mediada pelos adrenoceptores β adrenérgicos vasculares ainda não está esclarecida O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos de um programa de treinamento físico e da suplementação de L-arginina na reatividade vascular da artéria femoral de ratos Wistar. Animais com idade de 12 semanas foram randomicamente divididos em quatro grupos: sedentários (SD), treinados (TR), sedentários que suplementaram L-arginina (SD-ARG), e treinados que suplementaram L-arginina (TR-ARG). Os grupos treinados realizaram exercício de corrida em esteira durante um mês, cinco dias por semana, em sessões com duração de 60 minutos, e velocidade de 1,2 Km/h. Os grupos suplementados tiveram 1,25 g de L-arginina adicionado a cada litro da água de beber, pelo mesmo período do protocolo de treinamento físico. Quarenta e oito horas após o protocolo experimental, os animais foram sacrificados, e suas porções proximais da artéria femoral direita foram dissecadas e colocados em solução de Krebs-Ringer. Curvas concentração-efeito foram feitas para o isoproterenol (1nM - 10uM), após pré contração com fenilefrina (1 uM) em anéis íntegros ou desnudados de endotélio. Observou-se que a combinação de Treinamento físico e suplementação de Larginina, promoveu redução significativa do peso corporal dos animais, sem que treinamento ou suplementação isoladamente promovessem o mesmo efeito. A sensibilidade β-adrenérgica se mostrou significativamente reduzida com o treinamento físico, isoladamente ou associado... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Physical training is an important tool as a non pharmacological treatment of the arterial hypertension because of its several mechanisms which promote vasorelaxation. L-arginine is reported to improve either endothelial function or vascular relaxation. However, the influence of the physical exercise associated with L-arginine supplementation in the vascular relaxation mediated by vascular β adrenoceptores is not elucidated. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the physical training and L-arginine supplementation in the reactivity of femoral artery. Male Wistar rats (12 weeks old), were randomly separated in four groups: sedentary (SD), trained (TR), sedentary plus L-arginine supplementation (SD-ARG) and Trained plus L-arginine supplementation (TR-ARG). Physical exercise consisted in a running program in a motor-driven treadmill during 4 weeks, 5 days per week, 60 minutes per session, in a speed of 1.2 Km/h. Larginine was administered during 4 weeks in the drinking water (1.25 g/L), starting concomitantly with the exercise program. Animals were sacrificed 48 hours after the last session of exercise and the proximal segments of the femoral artery were removed and placed in Krebs-Ringer solution. Concentration-response curves were obtained to isoproterenol (1nM - 10uM), in rings with intact or denuded endothelium, precontracted with phenylephrine (1uM). The association of physical training and L-arginine supplementation resulted in a significant decrease in the body weight. However, physical training or L-arginine alone did not promote the same effect. The β-adrenergic receptors sensitivity was significantly decreased after physical training or L-arginine supplementation at the pEC50 level (SD: 7.13 ± 0.05; TR: 6.93 ± 0.03; SD-ARG: 7.22 ± 0.02; TR-ARG: 6.90 ± 0.01), with no changes in the maximal responses... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Orientador: Angelina Zanesco / Coorientador: Fernanda Bruschi Marinho Priviero / Banca: Edson Antunes / Banca: Adelino Sanchez Ramos da Silva / Banca: Everardo Magalhães Carneiro / Banca: Camila de Morais / Doutor

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar os efeitos que as fontes orgânicas e inorgânicas de cobre e enxofre possuem na interação cobre-enxofre-molibdênio, estimando a biodisponibilidade de duas fontes de cobre na dieta de ovinos. Para isso, foram utilizados 40 ovinos desmamados, com aproximadamente 3 meses e peso médio 20 kg, distribuídos em 10 tratamentos, sendo: 1) dieta basal; 2) dieta basal contendo 10 mg de molibdênio/kg de MS; 3) dieta basal + 10 mg cobre inorgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre inorgânico/kg de MS; 4) dieta basal + 10 mg cobre inorgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre orgânico/kg de MS; 5) dieta basal + 10 mg cobre orgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre inorgânico/kg de MS; 6) dieta basal + 10 mg cobre orgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre orgânico/kg de MS; 7) dieta com 10 mg molibdênio + 10 mg cobre inorgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre inorgânico/kg de MS; 8) dieta com 10 mg molibdênio + 10 mg cobre inorgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre orgânico/kg de MS; 9) dieta com 10 mg molibdênio + 10 mg cobre orgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre inorgânico/kg de MS; 10) dieta com 10 mg molibdênio + 10 mg cobre orgânico/kg de MS + 0,2% enxofre orgânico/kg de MS. O experimento teve duração total de 84 dias, sendo realizadas pesagens dos animais nos dias 1, 28, 56 e 84 dias para acompanhamento do desenvolvimento. Foram realizadas também coletas sanguíneas para estudo de teores de cobre, enxofre e molibdênio sanguíneos, teores de glicose, albumina, ureia, colesterol, triglicerídeos, hematócrito e ceruloplasmina. Foram realizadas biópsias do fígado no tempo zero para análises de cobre, enxofre e molibdênio. Ao término do período experimental os animais foram abatidos e colheu-se amostras de fígado e líquido biliar para determinação final dos teores de minerais, bem como acompanhamento do pH e peso das carcaças quente e fria. No terço final do período experimental foi realizado um balanço metabólico para cobre, enxofre e molibdênio, sendo a biodisponibilidade do cobre calculada pela técnica \"slope ratio\", utilizando-se os teores de cobre hepático. Os parâmetros foram analisados considerando-se a existência de uma estrutura de tratamento fatorial 2 x 2 x 2 (com e sem molibdênio, cobre orgânico e inorgânico e enxofre orgânico e inorgânico) e uma dieta basal e uma basal mais molibdênio, em delineamento inteiramente casualizado. As concentrações de glicose, albumina, ureia, colesterol e hematócrito sanguíneos não sofreram efeito (P>0,05) pela adição de molibdênio ou adição de cobre e enxofre, ou pela interação cobre-enxofre-molibdênio. Entretanto as concentrações de triglicerídeos sanguíneos foram alteradas (P<0,05) pela interação cobre-enxofre, mostrando redução na sua concentração quando da adição de cobre e enxofre nas fontes orgânicas. O peso vivo dos ovinos não foi influenciado (P>0,05) pelos tratamentos, porém o ganho de peso foi influenciado pela interação cobre-enxofre-molibdênio onde se observou redução no ganho de peso com a adição de molibdênio exclusivo e aumento no ganho de peso quando adicionado molibdênio com cobre e enxofre nas fontes orgânicas quando comparados com as fontes inorgânicas. A suplementação de fontes de cobre e enxofre e adição de molibdênio não influenciaram (P>0,05) os valores de pH e peso das carcaças. A presença de molibdênio na dieta diminuiu os teores de ceruloplasmina e a presença e molibdênio exclusivo reduziu as concentrações de cobre no soro dos ovinos, bem como a interação cobre-enxofre-molibdênio com as fontes inorgânicas dos minerais reduziu a ceruloplasmina e cobre no soro. Em contrapartida, a ceruloplasmina mostrou aumento nos níveis quando da administração de enxofre orgânico. Os teores de enxofre sanguíneos não foram influenciados pelos tratamentos. No líquido biliar contatou-se efeito do molibdênio exclusivo sobre os minerais, mostrando redução nas concentrações de cobre e enxofre e aumento na concentração de molibdênio. Os valores hepáticos de cobre e enxofre não foram influenciados (P>0,05) pelos tratamentos, somente o molibdênio hepático mostrou efeito na interação cobre-enxofre-molibdênio. A biodisponibilidade do cobre proteinado (145,09%) foi superior à do sulfato de cobre (100%), independente da fonte de enxofre e na ausência e molibdênio, quando determinado pela regressão múltipla \"slope ratio\". / This research aim to study the effect of organic and inorganic copper and sulfur sources in the interaction copper-sulfur-molybdenum, estimating the bioavailability of two sources of copper in the diet of sheep. For that used 40 weaned sheep at about 3 months of age and weighing 20 kg and distributed in 10 treatments, as follows: 1) basal diet; 2) diet containing molybdenum; 3) basal diet + copper inorganic + sulfur inorganic; 4) basal diet + copper inorganic + sulfur organic; 5) basal diet + copper organic + sulfur, inorganic; 6) basal diet + copper organic + sulfur organic; 7) diet with molybdenum + copper inorganic + sulfur inorganic; 8) diet with molybdenum + copper inorganic + organic sulfur; 9) diet with molybdenum + copper organic + sulfur inorganic, 10) diet with molybdenum + organic copper + organic sulfur. The experimental period lasted 84 days, animal weighing was performed on days 0, 28, 56 and 84 days to monitor its development. Blood collections to study levels of copper, sulfur and molybdenum, concentrations of glucose, albumin, urea, cholesterol, triglycerides, hematocrit and ceruloplasmin were also performed. Liver biopsies were made on zero day for copper, sulfur and molybdenum analysis. At the end of the experimental period, the animals were slaughtered and samples were collected from liver and bile fluid for final determination of mineral, and was measured pH and weight of hot and cold carcasses. At the end of the third experimental period was done a metabolic balance of copper, molybdenum and sulfur. The bioavailability of copper was calculated by \"slope ratio\" technique, using the concentration of copper in the liver. The parameters were analyzed considering the existence of a factorial structure 2 x 2 x 2 (with and without molybdenum, organic and inorganic copper and organic and inorganic sulphur) and a basal diet and a basal diet plus molybdenum. The concentrations of glucose, albumin, urea, cholesterol and blood hematocrit levels were not affected (P>0,05) by the addition of molybdenum or adding copper and sulfur, or the copper-molybdenum-sulfur interaction. However, blood triglyceride concentrations were changed (P<0.05) by copper-sulfur interaction, with a reduction in their concentration after the addition of copper and sulfur in organic sources. The live weight of the sheep was not affected (P>0,05) by the treatments, but the weight gain was influenced by the interaction copper-molybdenum-sulfur there was a reduction in weight gain with the addition of molybdenum and an increase was observed in the weight gain when added with copper and molybdenum in the organic sulfur sources compared to the inorganic sources. The supplemental sources of copper and sulfur and addition of molybdenum had no effect (P>0,05) on pH values and carcass weight. The presence of molybdenum in the diet reduced the levels of ceruloplasmin and the exclusive molybdenum presence reduced copper concentrations in the serum of the sheep. The copper-molybdenum-sulfur interaction with the inorganic sources of minerals decreased serum ceruloplasmin and copper. On the other hand, there was an increase in ceruloplasmin levels with organic sulfur administration. The blood levels of sulfur were not affected by treatments. Bile liquid was affected by molybdenum, it was a reduction in the concentrations of copper and sulfur with increase in the molybdenum concentration. The copper and sulfur liver levels were not influenced (P>0,05) by treatments, only the liver Molybdenum effect showed on copper-molybdenum-sulfur interaction. The bioavailability of organic copper (145.09%) was higher than that of copper sulphate (100%), irrespective of the source and in the absence and sulfur and molybdenum, as determined by multiple regression slope ratio.

Pasture is considered one of our most important agricultural crops, contributing more than one third of all feed consumed by livestock in the United States. High quality pasture has been recognized to be highly important in efficient milk production. It has been shown, however, that good pasture must be supplemented by concentrates if' milk production is to be maintained at a high level.

Early-lactating dairy cows mobilize body protein, primarily from skeletal muscle, to provide amino acids which are directed towards gluconeogenesis and milk protein synthesis. Propylene glycol (PG) is a precursor of ruminal propionate, and our hypothesis was that its dietary inclusion could attenuate skeletal muscle wasting by reducing amino acid-driven gluconeogenesis. The major objectives of this study were to delineate the effects of pre- and post-partum PG supplementation in transition dairy cows on whole-body nitrogen (N) balance, urinary 3-methylhistidine (3-MH) excretion, body composition, and gene expression profiles for the major protein degradation pathways in skeletal muscle. Sixteen pregnant cows (7 primiparous and 9 multiparous) were paired based on expected calving dates and then randomly assigned within each pair to either a basal diet (control) or basal diet plus 600 mL/d of PG (PG). Diets were fed twice daily for ad libitum intake, and PG was fed in equal amounts as a top dress. All measurements were conducted at 3 time intervals starting at d -14 ± 5, d 15 and d 38 relative to calving. Propylene glycol had no effect (P > 0.05) on whole-body N balance, urinary 3-MH excretion, and body composition. However, N balance was lower (P < 0.001) at d 15 and d 38, compared to d -14. Urinary excretion of 3-MH was lower at d -14 than at d 15 (P = 0.01) and d 38 (P = 0.001). Supplemental PG had no effect (P > 0.05) on body weight (BW), and all components of empty BW. On average, cows fed both diets mobilized 19 kg of body fat and 14 kg of body protein between d -14 and d 38. Supplemental PG had no effect on mRNA abundance in skeletal muscle for m-calpain (P = 0.96) and 14-kDa ubiquitin-carrier protein E2 (14-kDa E2) (P = 0.54); however, PG supplementation down-regulated mRNA expression for µ-calpain at d 15 (P = 0.02), and tended to down-regulate mRNA expression for ubiquitin at d 15 (P = 0.07) and proteasome 26S subunit-ATPase at d 38 (P = 0.097). Relative to calving, mRNA abundance for m-calpain (P = 0.02) and µ-calpain (P = 0.005) were higher at d 15 compared to d -14 and d 38. Messenger RNA abundance for ubiquitin (P = 0.07) and 14-kDa E2 (P = 0.005) were lower at d 38 compared to d 15. In summary, these results demonstrate that up-regulation of the Ca2+-dependent and ubiquitin-mediated proteolytic pathways are the mechanisms by which skeletal muscle wasting occurs in early-lactating cows. In addition, dietary supplementation with PG may down-regulate some of these proteolytic pathways, thereby potentially attenuating undesirable skeletal muscle wasting.

Is Supplemental Leucine Intake Associated with Enhanced Post Exercise Muscle Protein Synthesis and Attenuated Muscle Protein Breakdown? Knight AD, Benardot D, Thompson W, and Henes ST Introduction: The role of individual amino acids on protein synthesis and their impact on physical performance is of high importance to athletes and to those studying the science of sports nutrition. Leucine, one of three branched-chain amino acids, is a frequently researched amino acid because of its potential stimulatory effect on muscle protein synthesis (MPS) following exercise in humans. Purpose: Although there have been many studies conducted on leucine’s muscle stimulatory effect, questions remain as to the efficacy and feasibility of leucine as an MPS catalyst. Contributing to these questions are the widely varied dosing and timing strategies that different researchers have employed. It is the purpose of this thesis, therefore, to assess the differences in study protocols and shed light on the potential effectiveness on leucine as a MPS stimulator. Central to this issue is whether supplemental leucine intake is associated with enhanced post exercise MPS and, if so, what associated factors, including timing and level of intake, are most likely to influence this effect. Methods: A comprehensive review of the literature on leucine and its effect on MPS was performed. Studies were organized into similar topics, with an assessment and summary of effect produced for each topic area. A general conclusion was made that was based on the summary of each topic area. Results: Leucine is involved in protein metabolism regulation through its role in stimulating the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling cascade and by indicating energy and amino acid availability. It functions to initiate MPS and decrease muscle protein breakdown by downregulating the ubiquitin-proteasome system, lysosomal activity, and/or increasing circulating insulin. Conclusions: Supplementation with the amino acid leucine effectively enhances MPS and attenuates muscle protein degradation in humans following bouts of physical exertion. Leucine intake in amounts greater than that found in ~20g whole protein saturates MPS and increases leucine oxidation. For this reason, an upper limit of leucine intake should be established. While leucine successfully increases MPS, it remains unclear whether this translates to enhanced physical performance, an area that requires more studies to be conducted.

The purpose of this thesis was to determine ways to maximize creatine uptake and retention during creatine supplementation. Since there are many factors that affect muscle creatine concentrations, a series of studies were performed. In the first study, the purpose was to determine if á-lipoic acid aided creatine uptake and retention. It was hypothesized that á-lipoic acid would increase creatine uptake, because it has been found to increase glucose disposal in animal studies and because creatine uptake has been found to be related to increased glucose transport. Results showed that phosphocreatine and total creatine increased following supplement intervention. In the second study, the purpose was to develop an optimal dose of creatine in order to minimize urinary excretion of creatine. It was hypothesized that individuals with more lean tissue mass would excrete less urinary creatine during consumption of the same loading dose. There was a high negative correlation between lean tissue mass and urine creatine excretion. Regression equations were developed for the relationship between lean tissue mass and urine total creatine and used to determine the amount of creatine to ingest relative to lean tissue mass that would result in minimal creatine losses in urine. Based on these results, a creatine dose of 0.22 [right arrow] 0.25 g/kg lean tissue mass/d was recommended. In the third study, the purpose was to determine if a habitual vegetarian diet resulted in lower muscle creatine and phosphocreatine concentrations compared to an omnivorous diet. A secondary purpose was to determine if creatine supplementation and weight training resulted in greater increases in muscle metabolite content, muscle fiber area, lean tissue mass, and strength in vegetarians compared to non-vegetarians. Results indicated that vegetarians had lower resting total creatine concentration, and that creatine supplementation and weight training led to greater increases in muscle phosphocreatine and total creatine in vegetarians compared to non-vegetarians (p < 0.0125). The supplement and exercise intervention eliminated the differences in intramuscular total creatine concentration that existed prior to the study. Type II muscle fiber area, lean tissue mass, total work output, and 1-RM bench press increased to a greater extent following creatine supplementation compared to placebo supplementation (p < 0.017), with no difference between vegetarians and non-vegetarians. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)

Early-lactating dairy cows mobilize body protein, primarily from skeletal muscle, to provide amino acids which are directed towards gluconeogenesis and milk protein synthesis. Propylene glycol (PG) is a precursor of ruminal propionate, and our hypothesis was that its dietary inclusion could attenuate skeletal muscle wasting by reducing amino acid-driven gluconeogenesis. The major objectives of this study were to delineate the effects of pre- and post-partum PG supplementation in transition dairy cows on whole-body nitrogen (N) balance, urinary 3-methylhistidine (3-MH) excretion, body composition, and gene expression profiles for the major protein degradation pathways in skeletal muscle. Sixteen pregnant cows (7 primiparous and 9 multiparous) were paired based on expected calving dates and then randomly assigned within each pair to either a basal diet (control) or basal diet plus 600 mL/d of PG (PG). Diets were fed twice daily for ad libitum intake, and PG was fed in equal amounts as a top dress. All measurements were conducted at 3 time intervals starting at d -14 ± 5, d 15 and d 38 relative to calving. Propylene glycol had no effect (P > 0.05) on whole-body N balance, urinary 3-MH excretion, and body composition. However, N balance was lower (P < 0.001) at d 15 and d 38, compared to d -14. Urinary excretion of 3-MH was lower at d -14 than at d 15 (P = 0.01) and d 38 (P = 0.001). Supplemental PG had no effect (P > 0.05) on body weight (BW), and all components of empty BW. On average, cows fed both diets mobilized 19 kg of body fat and 14 kg of body protein between d -14 and d 38. Supplemental PG had no effect on mRNA abundance in skeletal muscle for m-calpain (P = 0.96) and 14-kDa ubiquitin-carrier protein E2 (14-kDa E2) (P = 0.54); however, PG supplementation down-regulated mRNA expression for µ-calpain at d 15 (P = 0.02), and tended to down-regulate mRNA expression for ubiquitin at d 15 (P = 0.07) and proteasome 26S subunit-ATPase at d 38 (P = 0.097). Relative to calving, mRNA abundance for m-calpain (P = 0.02) and µ-calpain (P = 0.005) were higher at d 15 compared to d -14 and d 38. Messenger RNA abundance for ubiquitin (P = 0.07) and 14-kDa E2 (P = 0.005) were lower at d 38 compared to d 15. In summary, these results demonstrate that up-regulation of the Ca2+-dependent and ubiquitin-mediated proteolytic pathways are the mechanisms by which skeletal muscle wasting occurs in early-lactating cows. In addition, dietary supplementation with PG may down-regulate some of these proteolytic pathways, thereby potentially attenuating undesirable skeletal muscle wasting.

Soil in the Mt. Longevity, Taiwan, eaten by Formosan macaques, was analyzed to determine the possible stimulus or stimuli for geophagy. I attempted to test the mineral supplementation hypothesis and to document macaques using particle size. I studied macaques soil-eating behavior from July 2000 to April 2002 in the Mt. Longevity, Taiwan, and analyzed soil samples eaten and uneaten by Formosan macaque for physical-chemical properties and geochemistry in the study area. The results show that samples of soil eaten contained relatively high iron ( 3.6% ) and aluminum ( 16.0% ). However, the concentration of samarium was significantly lower in soil from samples eaten than in the random samples. No difference in concentration of the remaining fifteen elements ( magnesium¡Bcalcium¡B chromium¡Bmanganese¡Bcopper¡Barsenic¡Bstrontium¡Bbarium¡Blanthanum¡Bcerium¡Bneodymium¡Bytterbium¡Bphosphorous¡Bsulfate¡Bchlorides ) and Nitrate nitrogen was found between these two groups of soil samples. Geophagy occurred at a high rate of 0.31 monkey per hour with an elevated frequency in the reproduction season. The density of geophagy has been estimated as 1.6¡Ñ103 individuals per km2 . Frequency of male geophagy were recorded highest in September. Frequency of Females eating soil was recorded mainly between February and April. The ingested soils were significantly richer in clay than control soils. This study supports the hypothesis that mineral supplementation is a major factor for Formosan macaque engaging in geophagy.

Food fortification and nutrient supplementation are important strategies to address micronutrient deficiencies. Mandatory folic acid fortification was implemented in Canada and the U.S. in 1998 to reduce the incidence of neural tube defects (NTD). However, the actual amount of folic acid added to foods has not been reported in Canada. We analyzed 95 fortified foods and found that there is 50% more folate in foods than that reported in food composition tables, which are primarily based on minimum mandated fortification levels. We then determined if these observed folate overages impacted the prevalence of dietary folate inadequacy or intakes above the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL). Using data from the 2004 nationally-representative Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) 2.2 (n = 35,107), adjusted for folate overages, we found a low prevalence of folate inadequacy in Canada post-fortification. However, few women 14-50y consumed 400µg/d of synthetic folic acid, an amount associated with maximal protection against an NTD. Conversely, we also showed that use of folic acid-containing supplements led to intakes >UL in the general population. To develop a tool that would help clinicians identify women with red blood cell (RBC) folate concentrations that were not maximally protective against an NTD (<906nmol/L), we used data from the nationally-representative U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006 to define risk factors of RBC folate <906nmol/L. We found that 35% of American women 19-45y had RBC folate <906nmol/L. Younger age, low dietary folate intake, not consuming supplemental folic acid, smoking, and being African-American were associated with increased risk of RBC folate <906nmol/L. Given our observations of a low prevalence of folate inadequacy and folic acid supplement use leading to intakes >UL, we used CCHS 2.2 data to compare the diets of supplement users and non-users in terms of inadequacy and intakes >UL for other nutrients. We showed that the prevalence of inadequacy was low for most nutrients, and from diet alone, supplement users were not at increased risk of inadequacy compared to non-users. Furthermore, inclusion of supplements led to intakes >UL above 10% for vitamins A, C, niacin, folic acid, and iron, zinc and magnesium.