High velocity channels are typically designed to discharge surplus water during severe flood events, and these types of flow are distinguished by high velocity, usually supercritical. A major challenge in high velocity channel design is to predict the free surface flow. Being able to predict the free surface flow profile beforehand can assist in selecting the best design for the channel as a whole. When the flow encounters a bridge pier, the streamline of the flow is separated and pressure may drop to a minimum; in contrast, velocity rises to its maximum value. As a result, cavitation damage may occur. The present study has used the computational fluid dynamics code ANSYS-CFX to investigate a full scale, three-dimensional engineering flow simulation of high velocity channels with different cross sections. The simulations were carried out on a high performance computing HPC cluster with 32 nodes. The code is based on the finite volume method and the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method was used to predict the position of the free surface profile. The impact of variation of the following parameters was investigated in terms of the free surface flow profile, both along the centreline and the wall of the channel: the minimum cavity index, and maximum shear stress on both bed and wall of the channel and on bridge pier; aspect ratio (channel bed width/flow depth), bed and side slopes of the channel, different discharges, which are represented by Froude numbers; the length and thickness of the bridge pier. First, the code sensitivity tools for convergence were examined. For this purpose, cases with different mesh sizes were examined and the best size chosen, depending on computation expense and convergence. Then, different turbulence models, such as the standard k-ε, RNG k-ε, and SST turbulence models were tested. The results show that the standard k-ε gives satisfactory results. Next, efforts were made to establish whether the flow achieved steady state conditions. This involved simulating two cases, one with steady state and the other with a transient state. Comparison of the two results shows that the flow properties do not change after three seconds and stay stable thereafter, so the flow can be considered as attaining a steady state. Finally, symmetry within the model geometry was tested, as this would allow a reduction in computation time, with only one side of the symmetrical model needing to be simulated. Two cases were investigated: firstly a simulation of only half of the channel geometry, and secondly a full geometry simulation. A comparison of the results of each case showed that the flow can be considered symmetrical along the centreline of the channel. Next, the code was validated against both numerical and experimental published results. For the free surface flow profile and velocity distribution the published experimental and numerical work of Stockstill (1996) was used; the ANSYS-CFX code results agree more closely with Stockstill’s experimental data than Stockstill’s numerical data. To test for shear stress distribution on the wall, uniform flow within a trapezoidal cross section channel was investigated and the results compared with those presented in the literature. The comparison shows good agreement between the ANSYS-CFX and published experimental works, for the predicted shear stress distributions on the walls and the bed of the channel. In total, sixty cases were simulated in order to investigate the impact of variations in the aforementioned parameters on maximum flow depth (both along the centreline and the wall of the channel) minimum cavity index, and maximum shear stress on both bed and wall of the channel and on bridge pier. Finally, non-dimensional curves are provided in addition to formulae derived from the data regression, which are intended to provide useful guidelines for designers.

Modem measurement methods ofthe surface turbulent fluxes (STF) of heat, moisture and momentum in the near surface atmospheric layer by the eddy correlation method and their calculation, relay on the validity of the similarity theory of Monin-Obukhov, which requests stationarity and horizontal homogeneity. Experimental data taken at specially selected sites allowed to develop this concept. Recently performed experiments, purposely conducted in non-ideal conditions showed an underestimation ofthe STF values. To systematise this effect it is suggested to parameterize such underestimation as the influence of inhomogeneity and nonstationarity of the landscape and the atmosphere around the point of observation. This scheme might prove to be useful for the design of new validation experiments in non-ideal terrain. / Modeme Meßmethoden zur Erfassung der turbulenten Oberflächenflüsse für fühlbare und latente Wärme sowie Impuls mit Hilfe der Eddy-Korrelations-Methode basieren für die bodennahe Grenzschicht auf der Monin-Obukhov-Turbulenztheorie, die stationäre und horizontal homogene Verhältnisse voraussetzt. Über speziell ausgewählten Oberflächen wurde dieses Konzept häufig mit Erfolg überprüft. Experimente jedoch, die gezielt unter inhomogenen Verhältnissen durchgeführt werden, zeigen oft eine Unterschätzung der turbulenten Oberflächenflüsse. Es wird vorgeschlagen, diese Unterschätzungen als einen Einfluß inhomogener Umbegungsbedingungen und instationärer atmosphärischer Prozesse zu interpretieren und zu systematisieren. Dieses Schema kann dazu beitragen, eine neue Art von Validierungsexperimenten unter natürlichen Verhältnissen einer inhomogenen Umgebung zu entwerfen.

A soleira lateral desempenha um papel importante nos reservatórios de detenção/ retenção (off-line), atuando na captação das vazões afluentes e evitando possíveis enchentes, problema em destaque nos períodos chuvosos das principais capitais brasileiras. Um melhor entendimento do seu comportamento hidráulico possibilitará o desenvolvimento de estruturas laterais mais eficientes. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo criar um modelo da soleira lateral através da tecnologia CFD (Dinâmica dos Fluidos Computacional) e validá-lo através de experimentos em modelo reduzido do Laboratório de Hidráulica da Escola Politécnica da USP. A partir disso, explorar as características hidráulicas do modelo de CFD, como o comportamento dos níveis dágua e a distribuição de velocidades. No estudo da validação estudaram-se três tipos de refinamento de malhas e três modelos de turbulência (k-, k- (RNG) e SST k-). O modelo computacional validado é composto pela malha 3, com um refinamento cerca de 342000 elementos (hexaédricos predominante), e o modelo de turbulência k- (RNG), que apresentaram a maior precisão dos resultados. A análise da distribuição de velocidades possibilitou visualizar uma região de mínima velocidade abaixo da soleira lateral, e também quantificar uma região de baixas velocidades no início da soleira, onde é pequena a eficiência das vazões escoadas. Através do comportamento da superfície dágua foi possível visualizar a região de influência do dispositivo lateral no canal principal. A comparação do coeficiente de descarga do modelo de CFD com trabalhos de outros pesquisadores, um nacional e outro internacional, mostrou a representatividade do modelo criado para condições diferentes. A ferramenta CFD é promissora para o estudo de estruturas hidráulicas, contribuindo para o seu desenvolvimento e aperfeiçoamento. / The side weir plays an important role in the detention / retention tanks (off-line), operating in the uptake of water inflow and preventing possible flooding, which is a highlighted problem on rainy periods of the main Brazilian capitals. A better understanding of the hydraulic behavior allows the development of more efficient lateral structures. This work aims at creating a model of the side weir through CFD technology (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and validating it through experiments on a reduced model of the Laboratório de Hidráulica da Escola Politécnica da USP. Thereafter, explore the hydraulic characteristics of the CFD model, like the behavior of water levels and the velocity distribution. In the validation study, three types of mesh refinement and three turbulence models were studied (k-, k- (RNG) and SST k-). The computational model is validated by the composite mesh 3 with a refinement about 342,000 elements (hexahedral predominant), and the turbulence model k- (RNG), which had the highest precision of results. Analysis of the velocities distribution allowed us to visualize a region of minimum velocity below the side weir, and also to quantify a region of low velocities at the beginning of the weir, where the efficiency of overflows is small. Through water surface behavior it was possible to visualize the influence region of the side device in the main channel. A comparison of discharge coefficient of the CFD model between other works (one national and the other one international) showed the representativeness of the model created for different conditions. The CFD is a promising tool for the study of hydraulic structures, contributing to its development and improvement.

Numerical simulation of mold filling in low pressure die casting is considered in this study. The physical model includes modeling of free surface flow, heat transfer with phase change, surface tension, natural convection together with effect of trapped air in the mold. The governing equations are discretized by control volume finite difference method. The pressure field is computed by two-step projection method and the free surface is tracked by PLIC-VOF method. Water analog model is used for the validation purpose. Good agreement between numerical and experimental results is observed which supports the feasibility of the presented method.

<p>Treatment wetlands been showed efficient for reducing pollutant in waste water. In Lajeado – RS, Brazil the landfill has poor leachate water treatment. It is necessary to supplement the treatment plant because they need to reduce BOD, COD and nitrate of the water going to recipient. A subsurface flow wetland (SSF) can be a good choice.  In order to be able to design an efficient SSF it is important to understand how the grain sizes of a substrate affect the reducing of pollutants in waste water. This study focus on two substrate, sand with grain size of 0 - 3 mm and gravel with the grain size of 10 - 20 mm. To see the grain size reduces BOD, COD and nitrate best, the experiment used eight pilot scales SSF for leachate water treatment, four filled with sand and four filled with gravel. Two different flows, four with batch and four used continuous flow; two of each was planted with <em>Thypa angustifolia</em> <em>L</em>. Samples were taken from each wetland every week during a four week period. The results showed that the wetlands with the fine- grained substrate; sand gave the better reduction of BOD, COD and TKN (total kjeldahl kväve). It also showed great reduction in color. Important to notice in this study is the lack of time; more samples are required to be able to establish a pattern.</p>

Treatment wetlands been showed efficient for reducing pollutant in waste water. In Lajeado – RS, Brazil the landfill has poor leachate water treatment. It is necessary to supplement the treatment plant because they need to reduce BOD, COD and nitrate of the water going to recipient. A subsurface flow wetland (SSF) can be a good choice.  In order to be able to design an efficient SSF it is important to understand how the grain sizes of a substrate affect the reducing of pollutants in waste water. This study focus on two substrate, sand with grain size of 0 - 3 mm and gravel with the grain size of 10 - 20 mm. To see the grain size reduces BOD, COD and nitrate best, the experiment used eight pilot scales SSF for leachate water treatment, four filled with sand and four filled with gravel. Two different flows, four with batch and four used continuous flow; two of each was planted with Thypa angustifolia L. Samples were taken from each wetland every week during a four week period. The results showed that the wetlands with the fine- grained substrate; sand gave the better reduction of BOD, COD and TKN (total kjeldahl kväve). It also showed great reduction in color. Important to notice in this study is the lack of time; more samples are required to be able to establish a pattern.

A soleira lateral desempenha um papel importante nos reservatórios de detenção/ retenção (off-line), atuando na captação das vazões afluentes e evitando possíveis enchentes, problema em destaque nos períodos chuvosos das principais capitais brasileiras. Um melhor entendimento do seu comportamento hidráulico possibilitará o desenvolvimento de estruturas laterais mais eficientes. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo criar um modelo da soleira lateral através da tecnologia CFD (Dinâmica dos Fluidos Computacional) e validá-lo através de experimentos em modelo reduzido do Laboratório de Hidráulica da Escola Politécnica da USP. A partir disso, explorar as características hidráulicas do modelo de CFD, como o comportamento dos níveis dágua e a distribuição de velocidades. No estudo da validação estudaram-se três tipos de refinamento de malhas e três modelos de turbulência (k-, k- (RNG) e SST k-). O modelo computacional validado é composto pela malha 3, com um refinamento cerca de 342000 elementos (hexaédricos predominante), e o modelo de turbulência k- (RNG), que apresentaram a maior precisão dos resultados. A análise da distribuição de velocidades possibilitou visualizar uma região de mínima velocidade abaixo da soleira lateral, e também quantificar uma região de baixas velocidades no início da soleira, onde é pequena a eficiência das vazões escoadas. Através do comportamento da superfície dágua foi possível visualizar a região de influência do dispositivo lateral no canal principal. A comparação do coeficiente de descarga do modelo de CFD com trabalhos de outros pesquisadores, um nacional e outro internacional, mostrou a representatividade do modelo criado para condições diferentes. A ferramenta CFD é promissora para o estudo de estruturas hidráulicas, contribuindo para o seu desenvolvimento e aperfeiçoamento. / The side weir plays an important role in the detention / retention tanks (off-line), operating in the uptake of water inflow and preventing possible flooding, which is a highlighted problem on rainy periods of the main Brazilian capitals. A better understanding of the hydraulic behavior allows the development of more efficient lateral structures. This work aims at creating a model of the side weir through CFD technology (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and validating it through experiments on a reduced model of the Laboratório de Hidráulica da Escola Politécnica da USP. Thereafter, explore the hydraulic characteristics of the CFD model, like the behavior of water levels and the velocity distribution. In the validation study, three types of mesh refinement and three turbulence models were studied (k-, k- (RNG) and SST k-). The computational model is validated by the composite mesh 3 with a refinement about 342,000 elements (hexahedral predominant), and the turbulence model k- (RNG), which had the highest precision of results. Analysis of the velocities distribution allowed us to visualize a region of minimum velocity below the side weir, and also to quantify a region of low velocities at the beginning of the weir, where the efficiency of overflows is small. Through water surface behavior it was possible to visualize the influence region of the side device in the main channel. A comparison of discharge coefficient of the CFD model between other works (one national and the other one international) showed the representativeness of the model created for different conditions. The CFD is a promising tool for the study of hydraulic structures, contributing to its development and improvement.

Modem measurement methods ofthe surface turbulent fluxes (STF) of heat, moisture and momentum in the near surface atmospheric layer by the eddy correlation method and their calculation, relay on the validity of the similarity theory of Monin-Obukhov, which requests stationarity and horizontal homogeneity. Experimental data taken at specially selected sites allowed to develop this concept. Recently performed experiments, purposely conducted in non-ideal conditions showed an underestimation ofthe STF values. To systematise this effect it is suggested to parameterize such underestimation as the influence of inhomogeneity and nonstationarity of the landscape and the atmosphere around the point of observation. This scheme might prove to be useful for the design of new validation experiments in non-ideal terrain. / Modeme Meßmethoden zur Erfassung der turbulenten Oberflächenflüsse für fühlbare und latente Wärme sowie Impuls mit Hilfe der Eddy-Korrelations-Methode basieren für die bodennahe Grenzschicht auf der Monin-Obukhov-Turbulenztheorie, die stationäre und horizontal homogene Verhältnisse voraussetzt. Über speziell ausgewählten Oberflächen wurde dieses Konzept häufig mit Erfolg überprüft. Experimente jedoch, die gezielt unter inhomogenen Verhältnissen durchgeführt werden, zeigen oft eine Unterschätzung der turbulenten Oberflächenflüsse. Es wird vorgeschlagen, diese Unterschätzungen als einen Einfluß inhomogener Umbegungsbedingungen und instationärer atmosphärischer Prozesse zu interpretieren und zu systematisieren. Dieses Schema kann dazu beitragen, eine neue Art von Validierungsexperimenten unter natürlichen Verhältnissen einer inhomogenen Umgebung zu entwerfen.

The waste management and recycling company, Söderhalls Renhållningsverk (SÖRAB) have constructed a surface flow wetland in order to treat surface runoff from the waste management site, Löt. The contaminated water passes several treatment steps until it reaches the wetland and a subsequent soil infiltration step. It is suspected that the flow path of the water through the wetland is short-circuited which may result in a reduced treatment efficiency. The current discharge concentrations of the chemical compounds tested for do not exceed the allowed discharge limits. However, it is of interest to keep the discharge concentrations as low as possible to protect sensitive areas and water bodies downstream. The aim of the thesis was therefore to investigate the flow pattern of the wetland and suggest measures which potentially could improve the treatment efficiency. The flow pattern was modelled numerically in a Physio-Mathematical model developed by Wörman and Kjellin (2020). The current flow pattern was modelled, followed by several simulation runs where the controlling factors of the flow were changed one by one. The validity of the modelling result is uncertain and should therefore be confirmed or rejected by conducting a tracer test prior to implementing any changes in the wetland design. The modelling results indicate the presence of a main flow path passing through the narrower section of the permeable embankment (intersecting the northern and southern part of the wetland, see Fig. 3). The results further indicate that the permeable embankment, the bottom topography and the vegetation distribution were the three major factors controlling the flow pattern within the wetland. Recommended improvements would therefore be to first conduct a tracer test to make sure that any changes implemented are based on the true current flow pattern. The embankment and the vegetation distribution seem to be the main causes of non-idealities in the flow but at the same time probably also have positive effects on the treatment efficiency (since they provide filtration and surface areas where microorganisms can attach to perform their treatment). One solution to reduce the non- idealities in the flow could therefore be to adjust the embankment to be equally wide and deep across the wetland. Furthermore, the bottom topography around the embankment could be adjusted so that the shift in bottom elevation is equal around it. This would probably aid in hindering the development of preferential flow paths through the embankment. Finally, the vegetation distribution could be made uniform. (It should also be noted that a uniform vegetation distribution would require adjustment of the water depth to be below 1,5 m to allow an equal establishment of vegetation). / Avfallshanterings- och återvinningsföretaget Söderhalls Renhållningsverk AB (SÖRAB) har anlagt en våtmark vid Löts avfallsanläggning, ca 35 km norr om Stockholm. Våtmarken utgör det näst sista reningssteget i reningsprocessen av lak- och processvatten från avfallsanläggningen. Riktvärdena för utsläppshalterna överskrids inte men det är önskvärt för SÖRAB att åstadkomma så låga utsläppsvärden som möjligt för att minimera påverkan på känsliga områden och vattendrag nedströms. SÖRAB misstänker dock att preferentiella flödesvägar kan förekomma där vattnet passerar alltför fort genom våtmarken. Detta resulterar ofta i en lägre reningseffektivitet då föroreningarna som är lösta i vattnet får en kortare kontakttid med de naturliga reningsmekanismerna som förekommer i våtmarken. Syftet med det här arbetet var därför att undersöka strömningen i våtmarken och identifiera vattnets flödesvägar med hjälp av en numerisk modell utvecklad av Wörman och Kjellin (2020). Strömningen i våtmarker styrs av en energigradient där flödet går från en punkt i ett vattendrag med högt energiinnehåll till en punkt med lågt energiinnehåll. Enligt principen om energins bevarande omvandlas energin mellan kinetisk, potentiell, tryckenergi och värmeenergi. Ändringen i energiinnehåll beror i sin tur på verkan av externa krafter (gravitationskraften, hydrostatiska tryckkrafter, friktionskrafter, kontraktions- och expansionskrafter och skjuvkrafter från vind. Dessa krafter verkar vid förändringar i bottentopografin, vattendjupet, ytmotståndet (vid våtmarkens botten och väggar), våtmarkens geometri samt där vattenytan är exponerad för vind. Dessa faktorer orsakar utvecklandet av skjuvkrafter i flödet som i sin tur orsakar utvecklandet av hastighetsprofiler och omblandning. Bildandet av hastighetsprofiler och omblandning av vattnet gör att olika vätskeelement eller föroreningar stannar i våtmarken olika lång tid då de rör sig olika fort. För att åstadkomma en så hög reningsgrad som möjligt är det därför önskvärt att hela våtmarkens volym nyttjas till samma grad och att samtliga vätskeelement rör sig med samma hastighet genom våtmarken vilket även kallas för en ideal flödesregim (där ingen omblandning i flödesriktningen förekommer). Då utvecklandet av skjuvkrafter i flödet utgör den grundläggande orsaken till avvikelser från en ideal flödesregim är det önskvärt att minimera dessa. De styrande faktorerna som orsakade utvecklandet av skjuvkrafter i flödet var som nämndes ovan: variationer i våtmarkens bottentopografi och vattendjup, våtmarkens geometri (som kan orsaka isolerade vattenvolymer), ytmotståndet (som bl.a. beror på distributionen av vegetation), vind, samt in- och utflödeshastigeter. Våtmarken undersöktes genom inmätning och lodning som sedan låg till grund för en konceptuell modell av systemet. Den konceptuella modellen utgjorde sedan en grund för att modellera våtmarken numeriskt. I den konceptuella modellen ingick identifiering och definition av systemgränser samt randvillkor, att definiera bottentopografin samt att dela in våtmarken i delområden med homogent flödesmotstånd. Systemgränser och randvillkor identifierades baserat på en vattenbalans. Med hjälp av vattenbalansen kunde relevanta komponenter att inkludera som randvillkor identifieras. Randvillkorens värden bestämdes genom mätningar av den hydrauliska potentialen med hjälp av en GNSS-mottagare (där GNSS står för Global Navigation Satellite System och mottagaren nyttjar satelliter för att bestämma höjd och position i en geografisk punkt) samt från erhållna mätvärden från SÖRAB av in- och utflöden som pumpas in och ut ur våtmarken. Då bottentopografin var okänd bestämdes den genom att vattendjupet mättes, interpolerades och subtraherades från en referensnivå. Vattendjupet mättes genom lodning och mätpunkterna interpolerades sedan i det geografiska informationsverktyget ArcMap för att erhålla ett heltäckande lager av mätvärden över vattendjupet. Därefter kunde vattendjupet subtraheras från vattenytans medelhöjd över havet vilket var 38,1 m och ett heltäckande lager över bottentopografin kunde erhållas. Flödesmotståndet beräknades enligt ekvation 16 (se avsnitt 2.1.) och våtmarken delades in i homogena delområden baserat på förekomsten av vegetation och om strömningen skedde genom ett poröst medium eller öppet vatten. Den numeriska modelleringen genomfördes genom att först modellera den nuvarande strömningen med och utan ett rör som går genom den genomsläppliga vallen. Därefter ändrades de styrande faktorerna för flödet en i taget för att kunna utvärdera vilken effekt varje faktor hade på strömningen i våtmarken för att åstadkomma en ideal flödesregim. Följande simuleringar genomfördes: (1) Bottentopografin gjordes jämn med ett vattendjup på 0,5 respektive 1,0 m, (2) inloppszonen gjordes längre för att undvika skapandet av isolerade vattenvolymer längs ytterkanterna, (3) vegetationens distribution gjordes homogen, (4) den genomsläppliga vallen justerades. Pålitligheten i resultatet från den numeriska modelleringen är osäker. Därför skulle ett spårämnesförsök behöva genomföras för att undersöka huruvida resultatet från modelleringen är tillförlitligt eller inte. Enligt modelleringsresultatet förekom en tydlig flödesväg som passerade genom den smalare delen av vallen. Modelleringen indikerade vidare att de kontrollerande faktorerna som styrde flödet i våtmarken framförallt utgjordes av distributionen av vegetation samt den genomsläppliga vallen tillsammans med omgivande bottentopografi. Det rekommenderas därför att modelleringsresultatets validitet först undersöks med ett spårämnesförsök innan några åtgärder vidtas. Möjliga förbättringsåtgärder som skulle kunna införas därefter för att sträva mot ett idealt flöde skulle kunna vara att justera den genomsläppliga vallen till att ha en lika stor tjocklek och ett lika stort djup överallt samt att justera bottentopografin runt vallen så att den förändras lika mycket runt vallen. Detta för att skapa förutsättningar för att undvika preferentiella flödesvägar genom den. En jämn fördelning av vegetation (och justering av vattendjupet till att understiga 1,5 m som tillåter kolonisering av växter) att störningar i flödet minimeras.

A dynamic simulation of the response of an inflatable dam subjected to a flood was carried out to determine the survivability envelope of the dam where it can operate without rupture, or overflow. A fully nonlinear free-surface flow was applied in two dimensions using a mixed Eulerian-Lagrangian formulation. An ABAQUS finite element model was used to determine the dynamic structural response of the dam. The problem was solved in the time domain which allows the prediction of a number of transient phenomena such as the generation of upstream advancing waves, and dynamic structural collapse. Stresses in the dam material were monitored to determine when rupture occurs. An iterative study was performed to find the service envelope of the dam in terms of the internal pressure and the flood Froude number for two flood depths. It was found that the driving parameter governing failure of the dam was the internal pressure. If this pressure is too low, the dam overflows; if this pressure is too high, the dam ruptures. The fully nonlinear free-surface flow over a semi-circular bottom obstruction was studied numerically in two dimensions using a similar solution formulation as that used in the previous study. A parametric study was performed for a range of values of the depth-based Froude number up to 2.5 and non-dimensional obstacle heights up to 0.9. When wave breaking does not occur, three distinct flow regimes were identified: subcritical, transcritical and supercritical. When breaking occurs it may be of any type: spilling, plunging or surging. In addition, for values of the Froude number close to 1, the upstream solitary waves break. A systematic study was undertaken, to define the boundaries of each type of breaking and non-breaking pattern, and to determine the drag and lift coefficients, free surface profile characteristics and transient behavior. / Master of Science