Electricity is used all over the world as a basic source of energy, essential for lighting, powering basic appliances and tools, as well as many other technologies important for today's societies. Electricity is produced, transmitted and distributed to consumers with a range of resources and technologies, resulting in a process that has impacts on sustainability. This thesis examines the interconnections among production, regulation and consumption of electricity, investigating the sustainability of the electricity system broadly defined. Under auspices of the Ecoplan China project, a case study approach is used to assess the sustainability of the electricity system in Dalian, China. Gibson (2002a) argues that sustainability ought to be conceptualized as a set of requirements, which are outlined as principles of sustainability. These principles, in this thesis, form the basis for a Sustainability Assessment of the electricity system in Dalian. The principles provide the analytical framework for reviewing the literature that discusses electricity in sustainability terms and in relation to China. Gibson's conception of sustainability is broad and does not provide guidance on specific procedures for conducting a Sustainability Assessment. The sustainability principles operate on complex systems theory and on the principle of integration, resulting in limitations for their practical application. More specifically, Gibson's principles are operationalized with electricity assessment indices derived for use in the study of Dalian. Relevant indicators are selected based on these indices. This work is exploratory in nature, as it tests the utility of the sustainability principles for assessment and indicator developent. The electricity infrastructure and system regulations relevant for Dalian were reviewed, while local consumer attitudes in relation to electricity were also examined. Dalian is dependent on coal as the primary source of electricity. Production infrastructure also includes a limited supply of wind power. A nuclear plant is being constructed in the region to reduce the need for future expansion of coal-based electricity production. The local grid infrastructure has been improved in recent years to increase efficiency of electricity transmission and to ensure that all residents have access to a reliable supply of electricity. Industrial growth and restructuring has increased the demand for electricity. The local regulatory environment is based on a centralized structure, with much input coming from provincial and state government bodies. Local consumer attitudes were investigated with a survey, in order to shed light on how sustainability and electricity are manifested in Dalian residents. This information is qualified in sustainability terms and relevant indicators are derived. The research is intended to start discussion in Dalian for developing a framework for evaluating sustainability of the electricity system and on sustainable development in general. The study supports Dalian's goal for becoming an eco-city and the results provide recommendations for further study of Dalian's electricity system. Dalian has taken steps to improve the electricity system, but a clear strategy to develop long-term sustainability is necessary. In coordination with local experts and government representatives, Ecoplan China is in a good position to further extend research for developing sustainability-based policy and planning tools for Dalian.

Nowadays, the world faces with lack of electricity access, water scarcity, climate change and global warming. The hydropower industry has a crucial role to deal with these problems as well as to develop projects for sustainable development. However, if social, environmental and economical impacts of a hydroelectric power plant (HEPP) project are not considered, it might lead to irreparable destructions. Nowadays, in Turkey, due to social and environmental problems resulting from hydropower projects, the opponents of HEPP projects are increasing. Whether there are any deficiencies in hydropower project&rsquo / s development procedure causing environmental and social problems is researched in this thesis. The laws and legislations in Turkey related to hydropower project are investigated. The International Hydropower Association (IHA) has developed Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol for hydroelectric power projects. It assesses the projects according to economic, social and environmental measurements. Thus a case study, namely Kayraktepe Dam and HEPP Projects is evaluated to identify social, environmental and economical effects of the project at an early stage by using this Sustainability Assessment Protocol. The effects of large scale dam are compared with the effects of medium dam and five diversion weirs on social, environmental and economical issues.

Eighty percent of the 780 million people worldwide that access water from an unimproved source live in rural areas. In rural areas, water systems are often managed by community based organizations and many of these systems do not provide service at the designed levels. The Sustainability Analysis Tool developed in Chapter 2 can inform decision making, characterize specific needs of rural communities in the management of their water systems, and identify weaknesses in training regimes or support mechanisms. The framework was tested on 61 statistically representative geographically stratified sample communities with rural water systems in the Dominican Republic. The results demonstrated the impact that long term support by outside groups to support community management activities can improve sustainability indicators, including financial sustainability which is a significant issue throughout the world. When analyzing the financial sustainability of water systems, it is important to consider all life-cycle costs including the expenditures made by households. Chapter 3 analyzes financial and economic expenditures on water services in 9 rural and peri-urban communities in Burkina Faso. Data from household and water point surveys were used to determine: socio-economic status, financial and economic expenditures, and service levels received by each household. In Burkina Faso recurrent financial and economic expenditures on water service ranged between US$5 and US$9.5 per person per year, with cumulative costs approximately US$19.5 per person per year. The average expenditures on water in Burkina Faso were well above the affordability threshold used by World Bank demonstrating the need to improve subsidies in the water sector. The sustainability of water supply systems and the ability to ensure the health benefits of these systems is also influenced by the deficiencies in sanitation infrastructure. Unimproved sanitation can be a source of water contamination and a risk factor in water related disease. Furthermore, the effective management of community water supply infrastructure is not a sufficient condition for ensuring water quality and eliminating health risks to consumers. As a result water treatment technologies, such as ceramic water filters (CWFs), implemented and managed at the household level and combined with safe storage practices are proposed as a means of reducing these risks. The performance of CWFs in laboratory settings has differed significantly from field studies with regard to microbial treatment efficacy and also hydraulic efficiency. Chapter 4 presents a 14 month field study of two locally manufactured CWFs conducted in a rural community in the Dominican Republic. Each of the 59 households in the community received one filter. The CWFs in this study performed poorly with regard to water quality and hydraulic performance. Focus group meetings and household survey suggests that flow rate is a major issue for user acceptability. To address the user concerns Chapter 5 presents two mathematical models for improving the hydraulic performance for the frustum and paraboloid designs. The models can be used to predict how changes in user behavior or filter geometry affects the volume of water produced and therefore can be used as tools to help optimize filter performance.

The Metro Vancouver region is experiencing high levels of population and employment growth within a strictly limited land base. With increasing competition for land, industrial land in particular is under considerable pressure to be converted to other uses, such as residential and commercial, with the current supply of industrial land is expected to be exhausted within 15 years. Without the ability to expand the industrial land base to meet the region’s future industrial needs, more efficient use of existing industrial lands must be achieved. In recognition of this, the region is investigating intensification policies to encourage better utilization and intensification of industrial lands for industrial activities. The early work on industrial land intensification highlighted a gap in planning literature and practice with respect to how the intensity of industrial land use is defined and measured. A better understanding of intensification in the industrial land context is required for the region to develop industrial land intensification policies. This research practicum explores expanded definitions and measures of intensification. The inquiry develops a prototype analytical tool designed to communicate these definitions and measures and to facilitate the evaluation of industrial land intensification. The prototype tool is based on sustainability assessment tools used in sustainable development planning. Through semi-structured interviews with industrial land stakeholders, expanded definitions and measures of industrial intensification were considered and the prototype tool was refined. The project concludes with a discussion of future directions for the prototype tool, including the development of multiple versions of the tool at different scales and for different industrial sectors; the creation of an intensification rating system; and the adaptation of the tool into a checklist to be integrated into municipal development application processes. These evolutions of the prototype tool anticipate how it could be integrated into planning and development practices and inform industrial land intensification policies in areas such as the Metro Vancouver region. / October 2015

Engineering for sustainable development requires prudent utilization of resources under economic, environmental and societal constraints. Resource utilization must follow a holistic approach. This brings in a need for comprehensive metrics which are simple, standard and universal. Thermodynamics may offer a metric that focuses on both quality and quantity of energy resources which may carry information to be combined with other metrics. This metric may be a thermodynamic property called exergy or available energy, which provides a better insight into resource use in both energy and non-energy producing systems. This thesis is devoted to a study of the exergy concept in manufacturing. A high volume PCB assembly, manufactured in a state of the art soldering facility is chosen for the study. Various mass and energy resources flowing through the production line were quantified in terms of exergy. On the basis of exergy content and exergy utilization in the production process, the sustainability in terms of resources use is discussed. An early version of this approach was presented at the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies, IEEE, Washington DC, in May 2010.

This thesis presents a new metric-based Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) method for assessing the sustainability performance of metallic automotive components. The unique feature of this research work include the development and use of a metrics-based product sustainability index (ProdSI) methodology by considering the total life-cycle approach and the triple bottom line (TBL) with the 6R methodology. It has been shown that the manufactured product’s sustainability performance can be comprehensively assessed using this new methodology. The major focus of this research is the integration of the 6R activities (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Recover, Redesign and Remanufacture). Four life-cycle stages of the product, with various end-of-life (EOL) product scenarios, are modeled and analyzed. These scenarios include: reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling the products at EOL. Furthermore, a new mathematical model is developed and presented to determine the optimum percentage mix for various product EOL strategic options. By using the 6R methodology, the overall product sustainability was significantly improved. This improvement was quantitatively assessed by computing the ProdSI score. Ultimately, this research shows that a closed-loop material flow can be achieved.

Sustainable transport is now a popular goal of transport planning. As with any aspiration, systems and mechanisms are required to assess and gauge success in achieving this policy goal. There is increasing reliance on sustainable transport indicators as appropriate tools for this purpose. The usefulness and credibility of any indicator-based assessment will undoubtedly depend on the specific indicators utilised. As such, indicators must be selected carefully to maximise their contribution to the sustainable transport decision making process. A review of current applications of sustainable transport indicators has revealed however, that they are typically selected in an ad hoc and arbitrary fashion. Development of a framework that facilitates transparent and systematic indicator selection would therefore represent a significant advance in transport research. In that regard, this thesis presents the Evaluative and Logical Approach to Sustainable Transport Indicator Compilation (ELASTIC), a methodological framework which provides a flexible, participatory and systematic mechanism for identifying and selecting key sustainable transport indicators. The output of ELASTIC is the Transport Sustainability Profile (TSP), a small un-aggregated suite of sustainable transport indicators which together can provide a snapshot of the sustainability of a transport system. Using various multi-criteria and statistical techniques, ELASTIC applies a robust process to evaluate and select indicators based on their analytical soundness and their relevance to key objectives of sustainable transport. A generic and transferable tool, ELASTIC is capable of application at different geographical scales as well as to non-transport sustainability assessment. For the purpose of this research, the framework is demonstrated through application to England, UK where the judgements of relevant Academics and Transport Planners are elicited and entered into the ELASTIC framework to systematically select a subset of 15 indicators from an initial set of 200. By disaggregating the sample of stakeholders into regional groupings, different context-specific suites of indicators for the regional groupings were also derived. The demonstration confirms ELASTIC to be an inclusive and practical approach to compiling a suite of sustainable transport indicators specific to context and which reflects the unique values of key stakeholders.

This research project set out to develop and apply a framework for assessing how energy systems may be structured to help society progress towards sustainability. The general intent was to outline a way to decide upon the things that matter in order to make better decisions that will lead to positive near- and long-term outcomes. There are various ways of reaching the goal described above, and the path chosen in this dissertation centred on Gibson’s (2006) sustainability assessment framework, an approach to integrated sustainability-based decision-making. In order to contribute to extending and specifying Gibson’s approach to sustainability assessment for energy undertakings, this project developed a theoretical framework grounded in various forms of complexity and energy. The journey described in the dissertation begins with an exploration of the complexity of science, the subject of Chapter 2. We live in a world characterized by inherent uncertainty, multiple worldviews, conflicting values, power dynamics and a whole host of other challenges to science and decision-making. Many of the environmental and human challenges we currently face have arisen in part because we do not sufficiently respect the limits to knowledge and the personal biases we all bring to the table. Chapter 2 develops a framework for knowledge generation and decision-making situated within its social context, and operationalizes this framework through the process of criteria specification. Drawing from multiple sources of data – particularly documentary analysis, semi-structured interviews and observation – the criteria specification cycle provided the means of and determining and deciding upon the things that matter in a given case and context. The complexity of science is only half the story emerging from the complex systems literature. From a different perspective, it is evident that we live in a world of complex dynamics and interconnections, and it is important to ensure that whatever energy paths we set out on recognize these dynamics. Fortunately, there is a wide range of literature relating to the characteristics of complex systems in general, as well as their energy and material flows in societies. These literatures are explored in Chapter 3 to develop an understanding of and guidelines for managing complex systems to the extent possible and appropriate. Building on the theory developed in Chapters 2 and 3, the discussion in Chapter 4 began to develop an understanding of energy systems and energy decision-making and was structured around three general questions: (1) what is the energy problem? (2) what are the characteristics of an appropriate and constructive relationship with energy? and (3) how can the necessary and desired sociotechnical systems changes be achieved. These questions were largely addressed through an exploration of the soft energy path and transition management and led to two sets of guidelines designed to address energy systems structure and change. The theoretical framework developed over Chapters 2-4 was consolidated into a proposed set of sustainability criteria for energy undertakings. The sustainability criteria set represents the principal theoretical contribution of the dissertation to the academy and the broader assessment community, and outlines a suite of generally desirable system attributes and actions for achieving progress towards sustainability, as opposed to an acceptability threshold. The proposed sustainability criteria are primarily intended for application regarding energy undertakings at a wide variety of scales, but are much more broadly relevant. In a manner that is more iterative than can be described in this abstract, the sustainability assessment framework described in this dissertation was applied in, and enriched through, four distinct case studies that assessed (1) the 2006 Ontario Integrated Power Systems Plan proposed by the Ontario Power Authority. The Integrated Power Systems Plan was originally framed as a coal versus nuclear problem, as opposed to a critical appraisal of power systems planning; and in doing so it underplayed potential for conservation, demand management, increased renewable energy, and social change; (2) a small-scale biodiesel operation in Barbados. The plant owner collected used cooking oil from restaurants, roadside stands, and individual homes, and converted it into biodiesel using a first-generation processing technology known as transesterification. (3) a sugarcane-ethanol plant in the Tietê-Jacaré Watershed of São Paulo, Brazil. The sugarcane ethanol mill harvests approximately 21,000 hectares of sugarcane crops from seven municipalities and produces hydrated ethanol for domestic markets, and sugar for domestic and international markets; and (4) the agricultural and energy systems in Senegal. Senegal suffers from significant deforestation and soil fertility decline coupled with demographic change. The many interconnections between the energy and agricultural systems require an integrated assessment of both. Each individual case study stands alone in providing novel insights emerging from application of the framework in the particular case and context. At the more general level, five important insights emerged from the case studies, including: (1) the benefits of, and need for, maintaining a flexible unit of analysis so as to improve problem structuring; (2) the importance of grounding an assessment within its context; (3) the benefits of seeking integration and positive indirect effects; (4), the need to plan for and develop energy bridges towards feasible and desirable energy futures; and (5), the need for caution in the face of thresholds and uncertainty. The individual and general insights from the case studies were incorporated into the most recent version of the sustainability assessment framework described in this dissertation. The framework is suitable for application, with specification for particular case and context, to all types of energy systems at all scales.

This thesis analyses the potential of a complex adaptive systems (CASs) approach based on system dynamics modelling (SDM) to add value to the currently used assessment tools and monitoring practices for tourism sustainability in an effort to advance sustainable development in tourism destinations. While many different concepts and tools for the assessment of sustainability have developed, most of them do not take the complexity and dynamics of tourism destinations into account. It is argued in this thesis that these linear tools need to be complemented with new approaches that can deal with uncertainty, non-linearity and unexpected changes. New knowledge from ecosystem research, which is derived from complex systems theory, suggests that tourism destinations are indeed social-ecological systems, which need to be viewed and studied as CASs. In recent years tourism researchers have acknowledged the necessity to view tourism as a system with interconnected elements, and have discussed the unpredictability of these tourism systems. CASs approaches, which have been successfully applied by ecologists and economists in other areas, are indicated for tourism management, but have been rarely used in order to promote sustainable tourism development and planning. Appropriate methodologies and frameworks for the implementation of CASs approaches into the tourism context are still lacking. Therefore this thesis addresses the aforementioned challenges as follows: • A critical review of the concepts and tools currently used for the advancement and assessment of sustainability in tourism destinations is presented. The review evaluates the suitability of assessment tools for specific sites and situations, and develops guidelines for tool selection. It is concluded that for particular purposes linear assessment tools need to be combined or complemented with tools that can deal with complexity and dynamics. Tools covered include sustainability indicators, environmental impact assessment, life cycle assessment, environmental audits, ecological footprints, multi-criteria analysis and adaptive environmental assessment. • The use of sustainability indicator as one of the most promoted assessment tools for sustainable development in tourism destination is explored further. A systemic indicator system (SIS) methodology based on a CASs approach as an alternative to linear assessments is developed. This methodology is tested using a case study of a holiday eco-village near Lamington National Park in Queensland. The research findings suggest that the SIS has the potential to enhance system understanding and adaptive management of tourism destinations, and can foster collective learning processes amongst stakeholders. • A framework is developed for a Learning Tourism Destination (LTD) based on the concept of the Learning Organisation, and using SDM as a tool for strategic planning and the promotion of organisational learning. The concept of the LTD is discussed on the basis of 6 case studies, where SDM has been applied primarily for predictive reasons, and through evaluation of the potential of SDM as a tool for the implementation and enhancement of collective learning processes. The results reveal that SDM is capable of promoting communication between stakeholders and stimulating organisational learning. It is argued that the effectiveness of SDM may be greatly increased through incorporation in the foundation of an LTD. • A practical approach for the implementation of an LTD is presented. Preliminary results from a case study undertaken at the Ningaloo Coast in Western Australia are discussed. Surveys were conducted to verify if the LTD forms a useful framework for fostering consensus building, dialogue and collective learning processes amongst stakeholders. The preliminary results of the study suggest that the implementation of an LTD on the Ningaloo Coast will improve the capacity of the local industry to take more responsibility for the sustainable development, and thus has the potential to enable a more effective transition to sustainability in the region. Through its multi-methodological approach, this thesis demonstrates the importance of considering tourism destinations as CASs. New concepts and assessment tools for sustainable tourism are needed that acknowledge the complex and dynamic nature of tourism and tourism development. Together, the SIS methodology and the LTD framework provide an initial platform from which to conduct further research.

This thesis analyses the potential of a complex adaptive systems (CASs) approach based on system dynamics modelling (SDM) to add value to the currently used assessment tools and monitoring practices for tourism sustainability in an effort to advance sustainable development in tourism destinations. While many different concepts and tools for the assessment of sustainability have developed, most of them do not take the complexity and dynamics of tourism destinations into account. It is argued in this thesis that these linear tools need to be complemented with new approaches that can deal with uncertainty, non-linearity and unexpected changes. New knowledge from ecosystem research, which is derived from complex systems theory, suggests that tourism destinations are indeed social-ecological systems, which need to be viewed and studied as CASs. In recent years tourism researchers have acknowledged the necessity to view tourism as a system with interconnected elements, and have discussed the unpredictability of these tourism systems. CASs approaches, which have been successfully applied by ecologists and economists in other areas, are indicated for tourism management, but have been rarely used in order to promote sustainable tourism development and planning. Appropriate methodologies and frameworks for the implementation of CASs approaches into the tourism context are still lacking. Therefore this thesis addresses the aforementioned challenges as follows: • A critical review of the concepts and tools currently used for the advancement and assessment of sustainability in tourism destinations is presented. The review evaluates the suitability of assessment tools for specific sites and situations, and develops guidelines for tool selection. It is concluded that for particular purposes linear assessment tools need to be combined or complemented with tools that can deal with complexity and dynamics. Tools covered include sustainability indicators, environmental impact assessment, life cycle assessment, environmental audits, ecological footprints, multi-criteria analysis and adaptive environmental assessment. • The use of sustainability indicator as one of the most promoted assessment tools for sustainable development in tourism destination is explored further. A systemic indicator system (SIS) methodology based on a CASs approach as an alternative to linear assessments is developed. This methodology is tested using a case study of a holiday eco-village near Lamington National Park in Queensland. The research findings suggest that the SIS has the potential to enhance system understanding and adaptive management of tourism destinations, and can foster collective learning processes amongst stakeholders. • A framework is developed for a Learning Tourism Destination (LTD) based on the concept of the Learning Organisation, and using SDM as a tool for strategic planning and the promotion of organisational learning. The concept of the LTD is discussed on the basis of 6 case studies, where SDM has been applied primarily for predictive reasons, and through evaluation of the potential of SDM as a tool for the implementation and enhancement of collective learning processes. The results reveal that SDM is capable of promoting communication between stakeholders and stimulating organisational learning. It is argued that the effectiveness of SDM may be greatly increased through incorporation in the foundation of an LTD. • A practical approach for the implementation of an LTD is presented. Preliminary results from a case study undertaken at the Ningaloo Coast in Western Australia are discussed. Surveys were conducted to verify if the LTD forms a useful framework for fostering consensus building, dialogue and collective learning processes amongst stakeholders. The preliminary results of the study suggest that the implementation of an LTD on the Ningaloo Coast will improve the capacity of the local industry to take more responsibility for the sustainable development, and thus has the potential to enable a more effective transition to sustainability in the region. Through its multi-methodological approach, this thesis demonstrates the importance of considering tourism destinations as CASs. New concepts and assessment tools for sustainable tourism are needed that acknowledge the complex and dynamic nature of tourism and tourism development. Together, the SIS methodology and the LTD framework provide an initial platform from which to conduct further research.