Thesis (Ph. D.)--Cornell University, 1914. / "Reprinted from Journal of morphology, vol. XXIX, no. 1, June, 1917."

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A família Ramphastidae é composta por aves conhecidas popularmente como tucanos e araçaris, endêmicas da região Neotropical. Possui cerca de 33 espécies, distribuídas tradicionalmente em seis gêneros. Neste trabalho, foi proposta uma hipótese filogenética para a família com base em caracteres siringeais. A siringe é o órgão responsável pelos sons vocais das aves e constitui-se de uma modificação do tubo respiratório, que inclui elementos esqueléticos cartilaginosos, membranas, músculos e nervos. Para tal, foram analisadas 18 espécies de cinco gêneros e codificados 46 caracteres siringeais, analisados segundo a metodologia cladística. Além do mais, foram incluídos simultaneamente nesta análise representantes da tradicional família Capitonidae, tidos na literatura como grupo-irmão de Ramphastidae. O resultado desta análise revelou três árvores igualmente parcimoniosas com 92 passos, índice de consistência igual a 0, 73 e índice de retenção igual a 0,88. O monofiletismo da família foi verificado e sustentado por sete sinapomorfias e aponta os Capitonidae neotropicais como parafiléticos. A topologia do cladograma obtida corrobora a inclusão de Baillonius bailloni em Pteroglossus, como proposto em estudos com base em dados moleculares. Com esta inclusão, todos os gêneros estudados são monofiléticos, sendo as relações encontradas entre eles a seguinte: Aulacorhynchus (Ramphastos (Pteroglossus + Selenidera), o que concorda em muitos aspectos com estudos prévios. A siringe também revelou a relação das espécies do gênero Pteroglossus, apesar do baixo índice de Bremer, no consenso estrito: (P. beauharnaesii, P. bitoquatus, P. azara (P. incriptus (P. viridis (P. bailloni (P aracari (P. pluricinctus, P. castanotis), sendo que a superespécie de P. aracari proposta por Haffer (1974) é a única corroborada como monofilética / The family Ramphastidae is represented by the commonly known toucans, toucanets and aracaris, and is endemic to the Neotropics. Around 33 species, distributed in six traditional genera, are recognized. In this research study, a phylogenetic hypothesis for representatives of this family based on syringeal characters was tested. The syrinx is the organ responsible for the vocal sounds of birds and consists of modifications of the respiratory tract, that include skeletal cartilaginous elements, membranes, muscles and nerves. Data from 19 species distributed in five genera were analysed and 46 syringeal characters were coded, based on Cladistic principles. The data matrix also included representatives of the traditional family Capitonidae, sister group of Ramphastidae. The results showed three equally parsimonious trees, with a length of 92, consistency index of 0.73 and retention index of 0.88. The monophyly of the family was confirmed and supported by seven synapomorphies, but the Neotropical barbets were indicated as paraphyletic. The topology of the cladogram corroborates the inclusion of Baillonius bailloni in the genus Pteroglossus, as proposed in previous molecular studies. With this inclusion, all genera are monoplyletic, with the following relationships: Aulacorhynchus (Ramphastos (Pteroglossus + Selenidera), which is partially congruent with previous studies. The syringeal data also clarified the relationships among the species of Pteroglossus, even though the Bremer index was low in strict consensus: (P. beauharnaesii, P. bitoquatus, P. azara (P. incriptus (P. viridis (P. bailloni (P. aracari (P. pluricinctus, P. castanotis). The superspecies P. aracari proposed by Haffer is the only one confirmed as a monophyletic group.

A família Ramphastidae é composta por aves conhecidas popularmente como tucanos e araçaris, endêmicas da região Neotropical. Possui cerca de 33 espécies, distribuídas tradicionalmente em seis gêneros. Neste trabalho, foi proposta uma hipótese filogenética para a família com base em caracteres siringeais. A siringe é o órgão responsável pelos sons vocais das aves e constitui-se de uma modificação do tubo respiratório, que inclui elementos esqueléticos cartilaginosos, membranas, músculos e nervos. Para tal, foram analisadas 18 espécies de cinco gêneros e codificados 46 caracteres siringeais, analisados segundo a metodologia cladística. Além do mais, foram incluídos simultaneamente nesta análise representantes da tradicional família Capitonidae, tidos na literatura como grupo-irmão de Ramphastidae. O resultado desta análise revelou três árvores igualmente parcimoniosas com 92 passos, índice de consistência igual a 0, 73 e índice de retenção igual a 0,88. O monofiletismo da família foi verificado e sustentado por sete sinapomorfias e aponta os Capitonidae neotropicais como parafiléticos. A topologia do cladograma obtida corrobora a inclusão de Baillonius bailloni em Pteroglossus, como proposto em estudos com base em dados moleculares. Com esta inclusão, todos os gêneros estudados são monofiléticos, sendo as relações encontradas entre eles a seguinte: Aulacorhynchus (Ramphastos (Pteroglossus + Selenidera), o que concorda em muitos aspectos com estudos prévios. A siringe também revelou a relação das espécies do gênero Pteroglossus, apesar do baixo índice de Bremer, no consenso estrito: (P. beauharnaesii, P. bitoquatus, P. azara (P. incriptus (P. viridis (P. bailloni (P aracari (P. pluricinctus, P. castanotis), sendo que a superespécie de P. aracari proposta por Haffer (1974) é a única corroborada como monofilética / The family Ramphastidae is represented by the commonly known toucans, toucanets and aracaris, and is endemic to the Neotropics. Around 33 species, distributed in six traditional genera, are recognized. In this research study, a phylogenetic hypothesis for representatives of this family based on syringeal characters was tested. The syrinx is the organ responsible for the vocal sounds of birds and consists of modifications of the respiratory tract, that include skeletal cartilaginous elements, membranes, muscles and nerves. Data from 19 species distributed in five genera were analysed and 46 syringeal characters were coded, based on Cladistic principles. The data matrix also included representatives of the traditional family Capitonidae, sister group of Ramphastidae. The results showed three equally parsimonious trees, with a length of 92, consistency index of 0.73 and retention index of 0.88. The monophyly of the family was confirmed and supported by seven synapomorphies, but the Neotropical barbets were indicated as paraphyletic. The topology of the cladogram corroborates the inclusion of Baillonius bailloni in the genus Pteroglossus, as proposed in previous molecular studies. With this inclusion, all genera are monoplyletic, with the following relationships: Aulacorhynchus (Ramphastos (Pteroglossus + Selenidera), which is partially congruent with previous studies. The syringeal data also clarified the relationships among the species of Pteroglossus, even though the Bremer index was low in strict consensus: (P. beauharnaesii, P. bitoquatus, P. azara (P. incriptus (P. viridis (P. bailloni (P. aracari (P. pluricinctus, P. castanotis). The superspecies P. aracari proposed by Haffer is the only one confirmed as a monophyletic group.

Thesis (M. Sc. (Zoology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / The larks (Passeriformes, Passeri, Alaudidae) are small to medium-sized (10-23 cm) birds that are primarily terrestrial and cryptically plumaged hence they are difficult to encounter and recognise. The current taxonomic circumscription places these birds in a group that is comprised of 21 genera and 98 species, with all the genera occurring in Africa, 13 in Eurasia, and a single genus occurs in Australia and the Americas. Up until Alström et al. (2013), morphologically, the lark family was distinguished by having two unique and primitive features: i) the tarsus morphology (latiplantar and scutellate) consisting of the flat posterior surface covered with prominent scales, instead of being narrow and smooth as in other families, and ii) the syrinx (voice-generating organ). Despite that the structure of the syrinx of larks has been studied, literature reveals confusion pertaining to either the presence or absence of the pessulus, its level of development and size. To date, the work in Alström et al. (2013) remains the most comprehensive multi-locus phylogeny of the larks in which three strongly supported major clades (clade A – hereafter the Alaudid, clade B – the Mirafrid, clade C – the Ammomanid) emerged though with some uncertainty in some parts of the tree. In this study, the aim was to investigate the utility of syringeal and vocal characters in classifying the species of larks, finding out how syringeal and vocal characters evolved and identifying characters that define clades. The gross morphology and histology of the syringes and song strophes of larks and their putative outgroups were studied. Gross morphologically and histologically, the larks were found to possess a typical syrinx classified as a ‘syrinx tracheo-bronchialis’ and pessulus was observed in larks and the outgroups studied. There were differences observed in the syringeal gross morphological structure across all the three major clades (A, B and C). This is with regard to the presence or absence of the divided or double bronchial rings variably observed in clade A, B and C. In clade B and C, the ossification is variably restricted to the centre of bronchial rings forming a serial pattern while in clade A, bronchial rings are variably almost fully ossified without forming any serial pattern. The prominent oblique muscle-like structure runs ventrally and it was only observed in clade C in Chersomanes albofasciata. On the other hand, the syringeal histology revealed differences in the shape of the pessulus (blunt, pointy or sharp), the pessulus position relative to bronchial rings 1, 2 and 3 (B1, B2 and B3 respectively), length of the internal tympaniform membranes and connective tissue along the internal tympaniform membrane. The position of the pessulus was variably found to align with B2, to be below B2 and to be positioned beyond B2. One-way Anova clearly showed that among the three clades (A, B and C) identified in Alström et al. (2013), a statistically highly significant difference (P < 0.01) was found between the song strophes of species in clade C and A. The species in clade A generally give song strophes defined by high maximum frequency, high peak frequency and broad bandwidth frequency. The species in clade B have a similar trend with those in clade A, possibly explaining the overlap between these clades and the statistically significantly difference between clade A and C. These findings may be in support of the phylogenetic findings in Alström et al. (2013) and this study wherein clade A and B shared a sister relationship while clade C was placed basally. Clade C, on the other hand, comprises song strophes that are defined by low maximum frequency, lower peak frequency and narrow bandwidth frequency and this clade differed significantly from clade A. Despite that not all of the species could be correctly classified to their respective clades based on the Discriminant Function Analysis’ partition plot, the largest number of correct classifications were for clade A (70%). In addition, the distinction among the clades was also observed in either the presence or the absence of wing clappings in the song strophes, either being detached from or attached to the song strophes. Clade B is the only one which was marked by the presence of wing clappings particularly, genus Mirafra, although they are reported in Chersophilus duponti which belongs to clade A but not included in this study. With regard to the vocal phylogeny, the topology was highly unresolved, and no relationships could be inferred. The tracing of the evolution of characters of eight vocal and five syringeal characters revealed that among the 13 characters for which the ancestral state reconstructions were performed, 12 are polymorphic that is, they underwent multiple state changes ranging from four to 18. Most character states were found to plesiomorphous and mainly leading to clades of which their ancestral nodes were defined largely by autapormorphic and symplesiomorphic states. These do not assist in explaining how the various characters evolved. In conclusion, the findings have shed some light concerning the general syringeal morphology and histological structures of larks, revealed that lark songs are not suitable for reconstructing the phylogeny, shed light on the evolution of the selected vocal and syringeal characters as well as identifying characters that define the three major clades of larks (the Alaudid, Mirafrid and the Ammomanid).

In dieser Arbeit wird die Physik der Stimm- und Lautbildung von Vögeln untersucht, wobei zwei verschiedene Zwei-Massen-Modelle des menschlichen Kehlkopfes, sowie die Theorie der Nichtlinearen Dynamik verwendet werden. Die Zwei-Massen-Modelle des menschlichen Kehlkopfes (ein angepasstes Zwei-Massen-Modell und ein Trapez-Modell) wurden dazu an die Größe des Stimmorgans der Vögel (Syrinx) angepasst, um die Druckentstehung, die Steuerung der harmonischen Obertöne und "Register" studieren zu können, die vom Syrinx ohne Kopplung an Quelle und Vokaltrakt erzeugt werden. Unsere Simulationen sind ein erster Schritt in Richtung eines realistischeren Modells der Syrinx. Eine detaillierte Bifurkationsanalyse des Trapezmodells bestätigt, dass die Geometrie und die Ruhelage der Syrinx das harmonische Spektrum drastisch beeinflussen können, und sie gibt Hinweise über mögliche Erzeugungsmechanismen der reichhaltigen harmonischen Spektren während der Einatmung. Des weiteren wird die Bifurkationsanalyse benutzt, um den Beitrag der Muskeln der Syrinx quantitativ zu beschreiben. Dies geschieht in dem Modell mit Hilfe von zeitabhängigen Parametern, welche die Ruhelage der Labia und die Frequenzmodulation steuern. / In this thesis, the physics of birds phonation is discussed using a two-mass models approach and the theory of nonlinear dynamics. Two-mass models of the human larynx (rescaled two-mass model and trapezoidal model) have been adapted to the dimension of the avian syrinx to study pressure onset, control of harmonic overtones and "registers" of the sound radiated by the birds vocal organ (syrinx) in the absence of source-tract coupling. Our simulations are a first step towards more realistic modelling of the syrinx. A detailed bifurcation analysis of the trapezoidal model confirms that the geometry and the rest position of the syrinx can influence the harmonic spectra drastically, suggests possible mechanisms involved in the production of rich-harmonic spectra during inspiration and is used to describe quantitatively the contribution of syringeal muscles. The latter is implemented in the model by means of driving time-dependent parameters controlling the labia rest position and frequency modulation.

Composing or arranging for orchestra is a skill which is hard to learn and hard to teach. Literature on orchestration is comprehensive in terms of rules of thumb and these heuristic tools are sometimes called principles of orchestration. However, a study of the literature on orchestration revealed that these 'principles' are not theories about the outcomes and effects of specific decisions made by composers. An exception is the work of George McKay who does indeed establish principles of orchestration to some extent. Granting a few exceptions, literature on orchestration takes as point of departure recommendations about techniques of orchestration and illustrates these techniques with analyses of existing compositions for orchestra. In this study I invert the approach followed in the literature and take music analysis as a point of departure for my study. I used an existing and conventional analysis of Claude Debussy's Syrinx for solo flute from the book Sonic Design: The Nature of Sound and Music by Robert Cogan and Pozzi Escot (1976) as context for my own analysis of Syrinx in which the less familiar type of analysis – the analysis of musical gestures and musical forces – can be understood. This analysis formed the basis for my orchestral composition titled Ananke which is based upon musical gestures from Syrinx. A reinterpretation of Cogan and Escot's analysis of Debussy's Syrinx enabled me to identify the musical gestures I used as a basis for my orchestral composition. Musical gestures are understood in this dissertation in terms of the theory of musical forces by Steve Larson. The objective in composing Ananke, based upon material from Syrinx by Debussy, is to explore different ways in which the musical gestures can be orchestrated in order to amplify the three musical forces namely musical gravity, musical magnetism and musical inertia. This process of composing the orchestral composition enabled me to construe principles of orchestration concerning musical forces and the different ways in which musical forces can be amplified. I found that the approach I followed in this study can indeed be employed in order to investigate and construe principles of orchestration, taking music analysis as a point of departure. This new approach to the study of orchestration opens up new possibilities in teaching and learning orchestration, as well as in composing or arranging for orchestra. / Thesis (MMus (Composition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Composing or arranging for orchestra is a skill which is hard to learn and hard to teach. Literature on orchestration is comprehensive in terms of rules of thumb and these heuristic tools are sometimes called principles of orchestration. However, a study of the literature on orchestration revealed that these 'principles' are not theories about the outcomes and effects of specific decisions made by composers. An exception is the work of George McKay who does indeed establish principles of orchestration to some extent. Granting a few exceptions, literature on orchestration takes as point of departure recommendations about techniques of orchestration and illustrates these techniques with analyses of existing compositions for orchestra. In this study I invert the approach followed in the literature and take music analysis as a point of departure for my study. I used an existing and conventional analysis of Claude Debussy's Syrinx for solo flute from the book Sonic Design: The Nature of Sound and Music by Robert Cogan and Pozzi Escot (1976) as context for my own analysis of Syrinx in which the less familiar type of analysis – the analysis of musical gestures and musical forces – can be understood. This analysis formed the basis for my orchestral composition titled Ananke which is based upon musical gestures from Syrinx. A reinterpretation of Cogan and Escot's analysis of Debussy's Syrinx enabled me to identify the musical gestures I used as a basis for my orchestral composition. Musical gestures are understood in this dissertation in terms of the theory of musical forces by Steve Larson. The objective in composing Ananke, based upon material from Syrinx by Debussy, is to explore different ways in which the musical gestures can be orchestrated in order to amplify the three musical forces namely musical gravity, musical magnetism and musical inertia. This process of composing the orchestral composition enabled me to construe principles of orchestration concerning musical forces and the different ways in which musical forces can be amplified. I found that the approach I followed in this study can indeed be employed in order to investigate and construe principles of orchestration, taking music analysis as a point of departure. This new approach to the study of orchestration opens up new possibilities in teaching and learning orchestration, as well as in composing or arranging for orchestra. / Thesis (MMus (Composition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

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