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abstract: Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) is a non-invasive brain stimulation therapy that has shown potential in improving motor, physiological and cognitive functions in healthy and diseased population. Typical tES procedures involve application of weak current (< 2 mA) to the brain via a pair of large electrodes placed on the scalp. While the therapeutic benefits of tES are promising, the efficacy of tES treatments is limited by the knowledge of how current travels in the brain. It has been assumed that the current density and electric fields are the largest, and thus have the most effect, in brain structures nearby the electrodes. Recent studies using finite element modeling (FEM) have suggested that current patterns in the brain are diffuse and not concentrated in any particular brain structure. Although current flow modeling is useful means of informing tES target optimization, few studies have validated tES FEM models against experimental measurements. MREIT-CDI can be used to recover magnetic flux density caused by current flow in a conducting object. This dissertation reports the first comparisons between experimental data from in-vivo human MREIT-CDI during tES and results from tES FEM using head models derived from the same subjects. First, tES FEM pipelines were verified by confirming FEM predictions agreed with analytic results at the mesh sizes used and that a sufficiently large head extent was modeled to approximate results on human subjects. Second, models were used to predict magnetic flux density, and predicted and MREIT-CDI results were compared to validate and refine modeling outcomes. Finally, models were used to investigate inter-subject variability and biological side effects reported by tES subjects. The study demonstrated good agreements in patterns between magnetic flux distributions from experimental and simulation data. However, the discrepancy in scales between simulation and experimental data suggested that tissue conductivities typically used in tES FEM might be incorrect, and thus performing in-vivo conductivity measurements in humans is desirable. Overall, in-vivo MREIT-CDI in human heads has been established as a validation tool for tES predictions and to study the underlying mechanisms of tES therapies. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biomedical Engineering 2017

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T cells are an essential part of the immune system. They determine the specificity of the immune response to foreign substances and, thus, help to protect the body from infections and cancer. Recently, T cells have gained much attention as promising tools in adoptive T cell transfer for cancer treatment. However, it is crucial not only for medical purposes but also for research to obtain T cells in large quantities, of high purity and functionality. To fulfill these criteria, efficient and robust isolation methods are needed. We used three different isolation methods to separate CD3-specific T cells from leukocyte concentrates (buffy coats) and Ficoll purified PBMCs. To catch the target cells, the Traceless Affinity Cell Selection (TACS®) method, based on immune affinity chromatography, uses CD-specific low affinity Fab-fragments; while the classical Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting (MACS®) method relies on magnetic beads coated with specific high affinity monoclonal antibodies. The REAlease® system also works with magnetic beads but, in contrast to MACS®, low-affinity antibody fragments are used. The target cells separated by TACS® and REAlease® are “label-free”, while cells isolated by MACS® still carry the cell specific label. The time required to isolate T cells from buffy coat by TACS® and MACS® amounted to 90 min and 50 min, respectively, while it took 150 min to isolate T cells from PBMCs by TACS® and 110 min by REAlease®. All methods used are well suited to obtain T cells in large quantities of high viability (>92%) and purity (>98%). Only the median CD4:CD8 ratio of approximately 6.8 after REAlease® separation differed greatly from the physiological conditions. MACS® separation was found to induce proliferation and cytokine secretion. However, independent of the isolation methods used, stimulation of T cells by anti CD3/CD28 resulted in similar rates of proliferation and cytokine production, verifying the functional activity of the isolated cells.

Le sommeil est un état de conscience faisant preuve d’un vaste potentiel au niveau clinique. Par exemple, le sommeil est devenu un outil dans le diagnostic précoce de certains processus dégénératifs au sein du cerveau, ainsi que dans le traitement de différents troubles physiologique et psychologiques. Son potentiel pourrait même être augmenté via la stimulation cérébrale. Bien que le cerveau soit un centre de communication majeur, la recherche en sommeil s’est principalement centrée sur des mesures statiques du sommeil. L’étude des patrons de communication entre les différentes régions du cerveau nous permet pourtant d’inférer sur leur utilité fonctionnelle chez l’humain. Et si ces patrons de communication permettaient une compréhension plus intégrée des changements du sommeil à travers la vie et de leurs conséquences au cours du vieillissement? Cette thèse permet d’étudier, sous un angle dynamique et novateur, l’interaction de l’activité neuronale et la modulation expérimentale du sommeil au cours du vieillissement normal. À l’aide de l’électroencéphalographie, la connectivité fonctionnelle cérébrale est évaluée à l’échelle des stades et des cycles de sommeil, de l’onde lente elle-même, ainsi que sous une perspective expérimentale grâce à la stimulation transcrânienne par courant alternatif. Les résultats des deux premières études démontrent les changements au niveau de la connectivité cérébrale en sommeil au cours du vieillissement, tandis que la troisième étude démontre la possibilité de moduler cette connectivité, ainsi que les oscillations cérébrales, chez la population âgée. À l’échelle des stades de sommeil, le cerveau des personnes âgées est plus connecté lors du sommeil lent profond et moins connecté lors du sommeil lent léger, comparativement aux jeunes adultes. Ces différences d’âge sont d’ailleurs plus importantes en début de nuit. Nos résultats démontrent aussi une diminution de connectivité associée à la phase de dépolarisation de l’onde lente chez la population âgée, comparativement aux jeunes adultes. Chez ces derniers, une augmentation marquée de la connectivité pendant l’onde lente est observée. La connectivité au cours de l’onde lente est aussi affectée par la présence d’un fuseau de sommeil en simultané, suggérant soit le mixte de leurs réseaux ou la mise en place de ceux du fuseau. Nous démontrons également, grâce à l’utilisation de métriques novatrices, la présence de deux types d’ondes lentes avec une dynamique de connectivité qui leur est propre, suggérant qu’elles soient impliquées dans des processus fonctionnels distincts. Pendant une sieste, l’utilisation de la stimulation transcrânienne par courant alternatif a aussi permis de moduler les fuseaux de sommeil, leur couplage avec l’onde lente ainsi que la connectivité fonctionnelle des individus âgés. Ces résultats, bien que modestes, démontrent l’aspect prometteur de la modulation non-pharmacologique du sommeil. Non seulement cette thèse fournit une vision intégrée des changements de connectivité fonctionnelle au cours du vieillissement, mais elle démontre qu’il est possible de moduler le sommeil des personnes âgées à des fins ultimement thérapeutiques. Le manque de flexibilité des différents réseaux des personnes âgées pourrait être à la base, entre autres, des changements au niveau de la consolidation de la mémoire. Les implications de nos résultats pourraient être pertinentes à l’étude des processus de plasticité ayant lieu au cours du sommeil. / Sleep is a state of consciousness which shows a great potential in the clinical field. For instance, sleep has become a tool in the early diagnosis of certain neurodegenerative processes, as well as in the treatment of various physiological and psychological disorders. Its potential could even be increased via brain stimulation. Although the brain is a major communication center, sleep research has mainly focused on static measures of sleep. The study of the patterns of communication between the different regions of the brain nevertheless allows us to infer on their functional utility in humans. What if these patterns of communication allowed a more integrated understanding of sleep changes throughout life and their consequences during aging? This thesis investigates, from an innovative and dynamic angle, the interaction of neuronal activity and experimental modulation of sleep in normal aging. Using electroencephalography, functional connectivity is assessed at the scale of sleep stages and cycles, at the scale of the slow wave itself, and from an experimental perspective using the transcranial alternating current stimulation. The results in our first two studies demonstrate changes in EEG functional connectivity during sleep in aging while our third study showed the possibility of experimentally modulating functional connectivity as well as brain oscillations in the same population. At the sleep stage scale, the brain of older individuals is more connected during slow wave sleep and less connected during lighter sleep, compared to young adults. These age differences are predominant at the beginning of the night. Our results also demonstrate a decrease in functional connectivity associated with the slow wave depolarization phase in older individuals. In the young ones, brain connectivity associated to a slow wave is markedly increased. Functional connectivity during slow wave depolarization is also affected by the simultaneous presence of sleep spindles, suggesting either the admixture of their networks or the establishment of those underlying spindle occurrence. We also demonstrate, through the use of novel metrics, the presence of two types of slow waves, each endowed with specific connectivity dynamics. This suggests the presence of distinct functional implications. These slow waves types could also be inherently modulated by distinct physiological processes. During a nap, the use of transcranial alternating current stimulation has made it possible to experimentally modulate sleep spindles, their coupling with the slow waves, and functional connectivity in older individuals. These results, although modest, demonstrate the promising aspect of non-pharmacological sleep modulation. This thesis provides an integrated view of functional connectivity changes in aging and also demonstrates the feasibility of experimental sleep modulation in older individuals. The lack of network flexibility that we described in the older population in term of connectivity could underlie changes in sleep-dependent memory consolidation processes. The implications of our results is relevant to the study of sleep-dependent plasticity processes.

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