Foram estudados os restos de peixes de três sítios arqueológicos no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Os sítios RS-S-327 e o RS-C-61 Pilger, estão localizados nas bacias dos rios Sinos e Caí, em abrigos sob-rocha, formados pela erosão dos arenitos da formação Botucatu. Foram identificadas 14 espécies de peixes no sítio arqueológico RS-S-327-Sangão: Bunocephalus sp.; Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Microglanis sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp. No sítio arqueológico RS-C-61- Adelar Pilger 12 espécies de peixes: Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Leporinus sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp., e uma espécie marinha:Carcharinus sp. A presença de espécies que apresentam migração reprodutiva corrobora a hipótese de que esses abrigos sob-rocha, eram ocupados em períodos mais quentes do ano. A maior exploração de espécies de peixes oriundas de ambientes próximos aos sítios aponta para uma atividade de pesca não especializada, feita dentro da área de influência doméstica dos abrigos. A análise dos vestígios do sítio RS-AS-01, Sambaqui Praia do Paraíso, localizado em Arroio do Sal (RS), demonstrou que molusco Mesodesma mactroides, foi a espécie dominante em todos os níveis estratigráficos, sendo seguida por Donax hanleyanus. Dentre os vertebrados, os peixes apresentaram o maior número de peças identificadas, representados em maior número por Genidens sp., Pogonias chromis, Menticirrhuslittoralise Micropogonias furnieri e espécies com menor representação: Paralonchurus brasiliensis, Macrodon sp., Cynoscion sp., Mugil sp., Paralichthys sp., Urophycis sp. e duas espécies dulcícolas: Hoplias sp. e Microglanis sp.. A estimativa das dimensões corporais com base nos otólitos das espécies Genidens sp., Menticirhuslitorallis e Micropogoniasfurnieri, conduziu a hipótese do uso de redes com malha padronizada. As experimentações da quebra e seccionamento de esporões de Genidens barbus, demonstraram que a quebra de esporões "in natura" e dos espécimes assados envoltos em folhas mostraram padrões de quebra irregulares. Os esporões dos exemplares assados em forno elétrico mostraram padrões de quebra regulares. Os exemplares expostos ao cozimento apresentaram um padrão de descoloração diretamente proporcional ao tempo de exposição. Os exemplares seccionados com lasca lítica por fricção apresentaram padrões condizentes com aqueles encontrados em esporões procedentes de sítios arqueológicos da cultura Sambaqui. Tendo como objetivo fornecer opções para melhoria das análises arqueofaunísticas, foi desenvolvido um programa para o gerenciamento de dados zooarqueológicos, utilizando a linguagem Pascal e como compilador/editor o ambiente de programação Delphi. O banco de dados é formado por lotes numerados sequencialmente, onde além das informações básicas para identificação da origem das peças é possível incluir informações sobre taxonomia, anatomia e tafonomia das peças. Considerando a grande diversidade de animais, as opções para inclusão de novos táxons estão em aberto a partir do nível de Filo. Diversas opções oferecidas pela bibliografia para os cálculos de NISP (número de espécimes identificados), NMI (Número mínimo de indivíduos) e tafonomia, foram contempladas pelo programa O sistema desenvolvido possibilita a tradução do software para qualquer língua com alfabeto latino e interação remota entre o usuário remoto e um servidor central. O programa ArchaeoBones, demonstrou ser eficiente para o registro de vestígios arqueológicos, geração de dados primários e secundários com confiabilidade e repetibilidade compatíveis com o grande número de dados utilizados. / Were studied the fish remains of three archaeological sites in the state of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brasil. The RS-S-327 and the RS-C-61, Pilger sites are located in the Sinos and Caí rivers basins in rock shelters formed by erosion of the Botucatu formation sandstones. Were identified 14 species of fish in RS-S-327-Sangão site: Bunocephalus sp.; Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Microglanis sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp. And 12 species of fish in the RS-C-61- Adelar Pilger archaeological site: Crenicichla sp.; Geophagus sp.; Hoplias sp.; Hoplosternum sp.; Hypostomus sp.; Leporinus sp.; Oligosarcus sp.; Pimelodus sp.; Prochilodus sp.; Rhamdia sp.; Salminus sp.; Synbranchus sp., and a marine species: Carcharinus sp. The hypothesis that these rock shelters were occupied in warmer periods of the year is suported by the presence of species with reproductive migration. A further exploration of fish species from environments close to the sites point to a fishing activity unspecialized made within the domestic shelters range of influence.The analysis of the remains of RS-AS-01, Sambaqui Praia do Paraíso site, located in Arroio do Sal (RS) showed that clam Mesodesma mactroides was the dominant species in all stratigraphic levels, followed by Donax hanleyanus. Among vertebrates, the fish had the highest number of identified parts, represented in numbers by Genidens sp.; Pogonias chromis, Menticirrhus littoralis and Micropogonias furnieri and species with less representation: Paralonchurus brasiliensis, Macrodon sp.; Cynoscion sp.; Mugil sp.; Paralichthys sp.; Urophycis sp., and two freshwater species: Hoplias sp. and Microglanis sp. Based on otolith dimensions, the estimation of body size of Genidens sp.; Menticirhus litorallis and Micropogonias furnieri has led the hypothesis of a use of nets with standardized mesh. The experiments of breaking and sectioning demonstrated that in Genidens barbus copies, breaking spines "in natura" and roasted specimens wrapped in leaves showed irregulars break patterns The spines of specimens roasted in an electric oven showed regular breaks paterns. The specimens exposed to cooking in wather, showed a discoloration pattern directly proportional to the exposure time. Spines sectioned by lithic flake friction showed consistent patterns with those found in spines coming from Sambaqui culture archaeological sites. Aiming supply options to improvement of archaeofaunal analyzes, we developed a software for zooarchaeologycal data management, using Pascal language and Delphi programming environment how compiler/editor. The database consists of sequentially numbered lots, in which beyond the basic information to identify the origin of parts, can include information on taxonomy, anatomy and taphonomy of the pieces. Regard to the great diversity of animals, the options to include new taxa are open from Phylum level. Several options offered by bibliography for NISP (number of identified specimens) and MNI (minimum number of individuals) calculations and taphonomic characteristics were included in the program. The developed system allows the software translation into any language in Latin alphabet and interaction between the remote user and a central server. The ArchaeoBones software proved efficient for recording archaeological remains, generating primary and secondary data with consistent reliability and repeatability with the large number of data used.

This project examined the differences in skeletal preservation from several mound sites in the West Central Illinois Valley, spanning the Late Archaic to Late Woodland periods, from approximately 2500 B.C to A.D. 1000: Koster Mounds, containing Early Archaic to Middle Archaic burials from approximately 8700 B.C. to 800 B.C.; Peisker Mounds, containing Early Woodland burials from approximately 625 B.C. to 230 B.C.; Gibson Mounds, containing Archaic, Hopewell, and Late Woodland burials starting 50 B.C. to A.D. 400; and Helton Mounds, containing Late Woodland burials from approximately A.D. 830 to A.D. 1200. The intrinsic factors of bone density and age and sex of the individual were compared statistically with bone inventories and osseous taphonomic conditions to determine if these factors affected preservation. Based on extant inventories each skeleton was scored on the percent of standard measurements possible to take, 24 cranial, 10 mandibular, and 44 postcranial measurements, following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), as a proxy for individual element completeness for major portions of the skeleton. Additionally, this project examined more specifically the preservation of the os coxa. The five commonly used areas for sexing (the ventral arc, subpubic concavity, ischiopubic ramus ridge, greater sciatic notch, and preauricular sulcus), following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Phenice (1969), were examined and scored independently. Three commonly used areas for aging (the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, and acetabulum) following Brooks and Suchey (1990), Phenice (1969) and Calce (2012) were examined and scored independently. Soil samples were collected from two sites and analyzed to determine if soil pH affects the preservation rates of skeletons differently. To assess the amount of data lost in older skeletal assemblages the author tested the hypotheses that (1) denser skeletal portions are most likely to be well-preserved, (2) mature adult males are more likely to be well-preserved than mature adult females, (3) mature adults will be more well-preserved than the remains of juveniles and old adults, and (4) skeletons from more recent time periods will be more well-preserved than skeletons from earlier time periods. The results of the study show, that while there are many factors that influence preservation of skeletal assemblages in the archaeological record, certain factors are more important than others when it comes to skewing the archaeological record. Sex of the individual does not appear significantly to affect the rate of preservation, while age at death and duration of burial, especially when looking at infants compared to adults and individuals buried during the Archaic period compared to individuals buried during the Middle and Late Woodland period, do affect preservation.

Determining the depositional environment and the postmortem alterations to a set of remains are aspects of forensic investigations that are necessary to explain the circumstances surrounding the death of the individual. Further research on the taphonomic agents that can impact skeletal material can aid in the differentiation between various postmortem alterations that impact a single set of remains. The present study focuses on organic staining as a method for reconstructing the deposited environment of the remains and the taphonomic agents in which they came into contact. Organic staining results largely from tannins leaching from plant materials, including wood and leaves, and therefore can be seen on bone deposited in wooden coffin environments or on terrestrial surfaces. The present study hypothesized that the degree of staining observed on skeletal elements would increase as the length of exposure to the organic matter increased and that different plant materials, and environments, would leave different patterns or colorations of staining. The skeletal elements consisted of 150 commercially available pig (Sus scrofa) femora that had the epiphyses removed and were completely defleshed without utilizing chemicals or boiling. The sample was divided into three groups with differing conditions and/or types of organic material introduced. Some were buried in a marshy environment within wooden boxes constructed of ten wood types commonly utilized in coffin construction throughout U.S. history: hickory (Carya sp.), walnut (Juglans sp.), cherry (Prunus sp.), soft maple (Acer sp.), mahogany (Swietenia sp.), yellow pine (Pinus sp.), poplar (Populus sp.), cedar (Cedrus sp.), oak (Quercus sp.), and spruce (Picea sp.). Additional femora were deposited in plastic containers lined with the same wood types as above and filled with tap water. Five control bones were deposited in a container with tap water and five additional bones were placed in a container with commercial tannic acid. The final group of femora was deposited on the ground surface surrounded by four types of dead vegetation: evergreen pine needles (Pinus strobus), northern red oak leaves (Quercus rubra), sugar maple leaves (Acer saccharum), and acorns (Quercus rubra) collected from the Boston area. The bones were removed once a month from their experimental environments and left overnight to dry. The level of staining that manifested on the osseous material was recorded qualitatively using the Munsell Soil Color Chart under a consistent indoor 40- watt daylight light bulb. The staining was recorded after two months upon initiation of the study and every following month until the study’s completion. After the color staining was recorded, the bones were returned to their experimental environments until the next interval of data collection. An additional sample of 15 bones, which were previously buried with direct soil contact, was also analyzed. These bones were either buried within the O, A, or C soil horizons for an interval of 1, 2, or 3 years prior to analysis. They were photographed and the staining was classified on one occasion after which the bones were permanently withdrawn and not returned to the experimental environment. In all of the experimental environments, staining was present after two months of exposure, and the color darkened across the bone surface with each episode of data collection. Both groups exposed to the wood types displayed staining across the entire bone surface with a few major colors on the bone shaft, while minor colors were only expressed along the margins or as small patches along the shaft. As the buried boxes began to break down, which is commonly observed in coffin burials, soil was able to infiltrate the boxes and contact the bones. This process resulted in multiple shades of brown to be present in the staining across bones in multiple wood types. The bones in the plastic containers with wood exhibited a larger variation in color staining likely due to a higher concentration of tannins restricted to a smaller area around the bones combined with a lack of water inflow. The staining ranged from red for bones with mahogany to brown for bones with cedar to even dark gray or black on bones with walnut and tannic acid, respectively. The bones in plant matter differed in that the organic staining was sporadic, often with large areas of very pale brown or yellowish brown coloration and with smaller patches of shades of darker brown. The staining present on the buried soil bones was intermediate to the other samples, in that it was diffuse across the shaft with a large range of colorations present. The results from the present study indicate that staining can manifest on bone within a relatively short time frame once skeletonization occurs and a variety of colorations or patterns of staining can manifest based on the plant material. The present research demonstrates the potential of organic staining to aid in estimations of the postmortem interval as well as an environmental reconstruction through species identification.

The understanding of ancient societies is often mainly based on how their burial sites have been interpreted. This is especially true for ancient societies where the burial sites may be the only remaining traces which can be studied. With a classical model, their analysis can yield valuable results on certain areas such as identifying status relationships and spatial groupings. The social structure that originally affected how the burial ceremony was conducted, however has largely been a subject of speculation. To analyse this structure a new theoretical foundation is required. In this thesis a ritualization perspective rooter in ritual theory has been implemented. It´s inclusion allows for the study of the structuring processes within the burials by identifying the normative actions which constituted the ritual. This approach requires methods capable of recreating that the ritual actions through the funerary remains. For this reason, the methodological approach employed has been largely rooted in archaeothanatology and taphonomy. In this thesis the Lapita culture which was active in Melanesia ca. 3000 BP has been in focus. This culture was chosen since its societal structure has so far been speculated widely but so far, no consensus has been reached. Only two Burial sites of adequate size and quality have been found to date, Reber-Rakival in Papua New Guinea and Teouma in Watom. These sites have been analysed previously and the findings suggest a rich variation in the funerary ritual implemented at the sites. Ritual has long been linked to societal structure but there are few methods which allow an archaeologist to study this structure through the ritual. The methods have been employed on physical remains from Reber-Rakival and recorded images from Teouma with the aim of clarifying the funerary ceremony and identifying the normative actions at both sites. The addition of previous research and ethnographic data was incorporated to compare and further clarify the interpretations. The resulting interpretation suggests that the burial practice and societal structure at the different sites had some overlap in how individuals of differing genders were positioned and treated. The extent to which this treatment was at the core of the ritual however, varied. In Teouma there was a clearly defined androcentric influence which was prevalent in both how the bodies were positioned and to what extent they were interfered with. This differed to the societal structure which affected the burials in Reber-Rakival which could not be as clearly defined given the greater level of disturbance at the site but was clearly not as extreme in favour of males. This indicates that different societal structures were in place but at present it cannot be considered as a conclusive estimation, further research is required to test it. / Tolkandet av forntida samhällen har ofta till stor del baserats på hur deras begravningsformer tolkas. Dessa undersökningar kan ge goda resultat men har oftast varit fokuserade på att identifiera exempelvis status och spatiala grupperingar. Den sociala strukturen som påverkade begravningsceremonin undersöks sällan närmare än via bred spekulation i den klassiska modellen. För att studera denna sociala struktur genom begravningsritualen närmare krävs teoretiska perspektiv som sällan brukas inom klassisk arkeologi. Ett teoretiskt perspektiv med vilket just denna struktur kan studeras är ritualization. Genom detta perspektiv kan de identifierbara normativa handlingarna inom en begravningsritual ses som en återspegling av den sociokulturellt strukturerande processen som påverkade ritualens utförande. Detta kräver metoder som kan återskapa handlingarna genom de material som finns tillhanda. I denna uppsats har Lapitakulturen i Melanesien som var verksam ca. 3000 år sedan legat i fokus för att se hur effektiv denna metod är på en relativt okänd kultur var sociala struktur är oöppen för vid spekulation i nuläget. Bara två större gravplatser från Lapitakulturen har identifierats i nuläget, Reber-Rakival i Papua Nya Guinea och Teouma i Vanuatu, så analysen har begränsats till dessa två platser.  Metoderna som använts har sina rötter i arkaeothanatologi och tafonomi har implementerats på fysiska material från Reber-Rakival och bildbevis från Teouma. Endast handlingar som direkt påverkade kroppens position inkluderades och ämnade att klargöra den rituella processen med focus på normativa handlingar och identifieringen av potentiella indikatorer för att tolka hur den rituella strukturen kan tolkas. Jämförelse med resultat från tidigare analyser och etnografiska exempel utfördes för att testa tolkningarna. Resultaten av dessa metoder visade att den rituella processen hade vissa likheter mellan de två platserna. Speciellt i att de varierade beroende på den gravlagdes kön. Vid sin kärna var det dock olika. Detta kunde ses i de mycket tydligare tecken på en klar separation mellan könen med en klar androcentrisk agenda i de rituella handlingarna i Teouma jämfört med Reber-Rakival där de rituella normerna var mer svårtolkade då platsen var mer störd men indikerar att den rådande strukturen inte var lika extrem i fördel för manliga individer. Denna uppskattning kan dock i nuläget inte ses som en slutgiltig tolkning, ytterligare studier krävs för att testa den.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-08-16Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T21:04:03Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 capretz_rl_dr_rcla.pdf: 3353928 bytes, checksum: 7e9219802799c05db6d9550923870f72 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / No presente estudo é descrita uma floresta do Eopermiano do Norte do Gondwana, dominada por pteridófitas arborescentes, gimnospermas, licófitas e esfenófitas. Esta rica assembléia fossilífera localiza-se no Monumento Natural das Árvores Fossilizadas do Tocantins (MNAFTO), na Bacia do Parnaíba, Norte do Brasil. Dois aspectos se destacam: a abundância dos fitofósseis e seu excepcional nível de preservação. Os vegetais fósseis guardam semelhanças com aqueles do mesmo período em Chemnitz (Alemanha), na Província Euroamericana, e com a Flora Gondvânica, na Bacia do Paraná (Brasil), entre outros. A análise dos padrões de orientação de 178 caules, junto com observações geológicas, sugere paleocorrentes no sentido Oeste-Leste predominantemente, originadas durante tempestades de monções, com área-fonte muito distante a Oeste, talvez em um contexto de leque aluvial distal. A vegetação das margens dos principais canais fluviais e suas planícies de inundação era dominada por pteridófitas arborescentes no estrato superior da floresta (dossel), com licófitas, esfenófitas e outras pteridófitas menores ocupando o estrato inferior (sub-bosque). Gimnospermas ocupavam regiões mais distantes das margens dos canais. A comparação entre pteridófitas arborescentes permianas (do MNAFTO) com pteridófitas arborescentes atuais (em remanescentes de Floresta Ombrófila Densa Submontana) permitiu discutir nichos ecológicos ocupados por estas plantas, a estrutura da floresta em ambos os casos, e a inferência da altura verdadeira dos fitofósseis, em uma aplicação inédita de técnicas alométricas a estudos paleontológicos / This present study describes a Lower Permian forest in Northern Gondwana, composed by tree ferns, gymnosperms, lycophytes and sphenopsids. This fossil assemblage is located at Tocantins Fossil Trees Natural Monument (MNAFTO) at Parnaíba Basin, Northern Brazil. There are two remarkable aspects: the abundance of fossils and their exceptional level or preservation. The vegetation is similar to the plant fossils found at Chemnitz (Germany), to Euroamerican Flora sites, and to Gondwanian Flora at Paraná Basin (Brazil), among others. Orientation pattern analyses of 178 stems with geological observations suggest paleocurrents in West-East direction, in monsoon storms. The source area should be at West, several quilometers away, probably in a distal alluvial fan context. The forest in the margins of main fluvial channels was occupied by tree ferns at canopy, and lycophytes, sphenopsids and other small ferns at understory. Gymnosperms probably lived in more distant areas from the fluvial channels. The comparison between fossil tree ferns (from MNAFTO) and modern tree ferns (in Submontane Tropical Rain Forest remnants at the present) allowed discussions about ecological niche, forest structure and estimations of real height of fossil tree ferns, in a new way to apply allometric techniques to paleontological studies

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No / An increased number of police enquiries involving human remains buried with lime have demonstrated the need for more research into the effect of different types of lime on cadaver decomposition and its micro-environment. This study follows previous studies by the authors who have investigated the effects of lime on the decay of human remains in laboratory conditions and 6 months of field experiments. Six pig carcasses (Sus scrofa), used as human body analogues, were buried without lime with hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and quicklime (CaO) in shallow graves in sandy-loam soil in Belgium and recovered after 17 and 42 months of burial. Analysis of the soil, lime and carcasses included entomology, pH, moisture content, microbial activity, histology and lime carbonation. The results of this study demonstrate that despite conflicting evidence in the literature, the extent of decomposition is slowed down by burial with both hydrated lime and quicklime. The more advanced the decay process, the more similar the degree of liquefaction between the limed and unlimed remains. The end result for each mode of burial will ultimately result in skeletonisation. This study has implications for the investigation of clandestine burials, for a better understanding of archaeological plaster burials and potentially for the interpretation of mass graves and management of mass disasters by humanitarian organisation and DVI teams.

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This research examined the behavior of avian scavenger bone dispersal in a New England environment. The furthest distance that avian species can carry bone elements can be used by search investigators by providing possible distances maximum dispersal. The sizes of bones dispersed by avian species provides context on how bone elements differing in size are transported from the initial site of deposition. The project utilized two locations with elements of varying sizes (large, intermediate, and small) with tracking tags attached to determine the distance and pattern of scavenger displacement. Scavenging was also recorded with motion-sensing game cameras that allowed for differentiation between which species scavenged on which elements, allowing for the distance carried to be associated with individual species. The most common avian scavengers were the northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens), and blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata). The furthest element that was displaced and recovered was a pig rib approximately 62 meters from its initial placement location and it was moved by a crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos). The second furthest element displaced was a pig rib moved approximately 41.5 meters by a Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii). In addition, six other elements were removed from the platform by birds and not recovered due to possible displacement outside of the search radius and tracking application radius. Overall, 55.0% of elements were recovered within 1 meter of their initial placement location. For elements dispersed under 1 m, Rayleigh z-statistical tests (z =1.328; α = 0.05) for the site location in a wooded area indicated that directionality was not statistically significant, while the location in the wetlands was determined to be statistically significant (z = 20.656; α = 0.05). In addition, a Watson’s U2 Two-Sample Test of Homogeneity (U2 = 0.374) revealed the two groups of average directions are significantly different at α = 0.05. This indicates a difference in direction of displacement between the platforms. For Platform 1 (forested location), the results of the Mann-Whitney U-Test (z = -2.638) indicated that the distances of displacement between the spring and summer seasons are significantly different between the two seasons at α = 0.05. For Platform 2 (wetland location), the results of the Mann-Whitney U-Test (z = -0.859) indicate the distances of displacement between the two seasons were not significantly different between the two seasons at the α = 0.05 value. In addition, Kruskal-Wallis H tests revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the platform location and the number of site visits for the majority of species. Only two species, cardinals (z = -2.04; α = 0.05) and song sparrows (z = -2.208; α = 0.05), were determined to have a statistically significant difference between the location and the number of site visits.