Zooarchaeological analysis of fish bones is a valuable approach to understand prehistoric diet and resource exploitation in island and coastal settings. This thesis explores fish use at the Hopoate site on Tongatapu by identifying the various taxa which comprised the ichthyoarchaeological assemblage. The analysis focused on recovered materials which date to the earliest period of occupation in Tonga (2850 cal BP). This is the first detailed fishery study from Tongatapu; few have been conducted elsewhere in Tonga. The inhabitants at Hopoate focused fishing on inshore reef fish which is typical of Lapita fisheries. The first inhabitants, the Lapita peoples, benefited from a mixed subsistence economy of plant and marine foods. However, the relative contribution of fish to the Lapita diet was variable across the Pacific Islands. Eighteen fish taxa were identified from a total NISP of 5091. The analysis of fish bones from Hopoate indicated an intensification of the fishery during the mid-Lapita period (2690-2390 cal BP). Past archaeological studies on Tongatapu have recorded a severe decrease in the availability of shellfish from the Fanga ‘Uta Lagoon, following the initial settlement of the island. The increased fishing efforts are possibly related to the decreasing availability of shellfish from the lagoon. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA) / This thesis explores fish use at the Hopoate site on Tongatapu, during the earliest periods of occupation in Tonga. The first inhabitants, the Lapita peoples, benefited from a mixed diet consisting of plant and marine foods. Archaeological evidence in Tonga and the Pacific Islands show intensive pressure on numerous native land and sea resources following initial settlement periods. The analysis of fish bones from this study recorded a high abundance of inshore reef fish, typical of most Lapita sites. Following the initial settlement period of the island, fishing efforts increased and a greater amount of fish were harvested. The intensification of the fishery over time may be related to a decline in shellfish harvested from the local lagoon. Overall, the results of this study indicate that the earliest inhabitants were heavily reliant on the local marine resources.

The understanding of ancient societies is often mainly based on how their burial sites have been interpreted. This is especially true for ancient societies where the burial sites may be the only remaining traces which can be studied. With a classical model, their analysis can yield valuable results on certain areas such as identifying status relationships and spatial groupings. The social structure that originally affected how the burial ceremony was conducted, however has largely been a subject of speculation. To analyse this structure a new theoretical foundation is required. In this thesis a ritualization perspective rooter in ritual theory has been implemented. It´s inclusion allows for the study of the structuring processes within the burials by identifying the normative actions which constituted the ritual. This approach requires methods capable of recreating that the ritual actions through the funerary remains. For this reason, the methodological approach employed has been largely rooted in archaeothanatology and taphonomy. In this thesis the Lapita culture which was active in Melanesia ca. 3000 BP has been in focus. This culture was chosen since its societal structure has so far been speculated widely but so far, no consensus has been reached. Only two Burial sites of adequate size and quality have been found to date, Reber-Rakival in Papua New Guinea and Teouma in Watom. These sites have been analysed previously and the findings suggest a rich variation in the funerary ritual implemented at the sites. Ritual has long been linked to societal structure but there are few methods which allow an archaeologist to study this structure through the ritual. The methods have been employed on physical remains from Reber-Rakival and recorded images from Teouma with the aim of clarifying the funerary ceremony and identifying the normative actions at both sites. The addition of previous research and ethnographic data was incorporated to compare and further clarify the interpretations. The resulting interpretation suggests that the burial practice and societal structure at the different sites had some overlap in how individuals of differing genders were positioned and treated. The extent to which this treatment was at the core of the ritual however, varied. In Teouma there was a clearly defined androcentric influence which was prevalent in both how the bodies were positioned and to what extent they were interfered with. This differed to the societal structure which affected the burials in Reber-Rakival which could not be as clearly defined given the greater level of disturbance at the site but was clearly not as extreme in favour of males. This indicates that different societal structures were in place but at present it cannot be considered as a conclusive estimation, further research is required to test it. / Tolkandet av forntida samhällen har ofta till stor del baserats på hur deras begravningsformer tolkas. Dessa undersökningar kan ge goda resultat men har oftast varit fokuserade på att identifiera exempelvis status och spatiala grupperingar. Den sociala strukturen som påverkade begravningsceremonin undersöks sällan närmare än via bred spekulation i den klassiska modellen. För att studera denna sociala struktur genom begravningsritualen närmare krävs teoretiska perspektiv som sällan brukas inom klassisk arkeologi. Ett teoretiskt perspektiv med vilket just denna struktur kan studeras är ritualization. Genom detta perspektiv kan de identifierbara normativa handlingarna inom en begravningsritual ses som en återspegling av den sociokulturellt strukturerande processen som påverkade ritualens utförande. Detta kräver metoder som kan återskapa handlingarna genom de material som finns tillhanda. I denna uppsats har Lapitakulturen i Melanesien som var verksam ca. 3000 år sedan legat i fokus för att se hur effektiv denna metod är på en relativt okänd kultur var sociala struktur är oöppen för vid spekulation i nuläget. Bara två större gravplatser från Lapitakulturen har identifierats i nuläget, Reber-Rakival i Papua Nya Guinea och Teouma i Vanuatu, så analysen har begränsats till dessa två platser.  Metoderna som använts har sina rötter i arkaeothanatologi och tafonomi har implementerats på fysiska material från Reber-Rakival och bildbevis från Teouma. Endast handlingar som direkt påverkade kroppens position inkluderades och ämnade att klargöra den rituella processen med focus på normativa handlingar och identifieringen av potentiella indikatorer för att tolka hur den rituella strukturen kan tolkas. Jämförelse med resultat från tidigare analyser och etnografiska exempel utfördes för att testa tolkningarna. Resultaten av dessa metoder visade att den rituella processen hade vissa likheter mellan de två platserna. Speciellt i att de varierade beroende på den gravlagdes kön. Vid sin kärna var det dock olika. Detta kunde ses i de mycket tydligare tecken på en klar separation mellan könen med en klar androcentrisk agenda i de rituella handlingarna i Teouma jämfört med Reber-Rakival där de rituella normerna var mer svårtolkade då platsen var mer störd men indikerar att den rådande strukturen inte var lika extrem i fördel för manliga individer. Denna uppskattning kan dock i nuläget inte ses som en slutgiltig tolkning, ytterligare studier krävs för att testa den.

La recherche archéologique au sujet du Complexe Culturel Lapita, qui se développa en Océanie il y a environ 3200-2800 ans BP, a considérablement évolué ces dernières décennies. Le propos de la thèse présentée ici est de montrer que l’étude des décorations des poteries lapita peut être particulièrement utile pour la compréhension de des populations lapita. Après avoir rappelé l’historique de la recherche autour du lapita, et l’état de la recherche actuelle, nous présentons dans un second temps une étude très détaillée des décors céramiques : comment ceux-ci étaient réalisés, comment les différentes frises et les motifs s’organisaient entre eux. Enfin, quelles sont les différences et les répartitions spatiales et temporelles de tous ces motifs et de leurs variantes. Cette première étape permet de dresser un bilan exhaustif du mode de représentation graphique des Lapita et d’insister sur son importance dans notre connaissance de la société au tournant des IIème et Ier millénaires avant notre ère. Dans un troisième temps, les observations et les résultats obtenus sont mis en relation avec les autres données archéologiques, ainsi que celles issues de la linguistique historique et de l’ethnologie pour tenter de montrer que les décors lapita peuvent sans doute être considérés comme les reflets de certains aspects immatériels –principalement sociaux- des Lapita : de la parenté à l’organisation des groupes lapita dans le vaste territoire compris entre la Nouvelle-Guinée et les îles Samoa, en passant par les îles Salomon, le Vanuatu, la Nouvelle-Calédonie, les îles Fidji et les archipels de Tonga et de Wallis et Futuna. Ce type d’étude permet une ouverture de la recherche océanienne vers des hypothèses de reconstitutions sociales ouvrant de nouvelles perspectives pour la compréhension des sociétés dites « à tradition orale. » / Archaeological research on the Lapita Cultural Complex, which developed in Oceania about 3200-2800 years Before Present, has evolved considerably in recent decades. The purpose of the thesis presented here is to show that the study of Lapita pottery decoration can be particularly useful for the understanding of the Lapita people. After having remembered the history of research about Lapita, and the state of current research, we present in a second time a very detailed study of ceramic decorations : how they were made, how the various friezes and motifs organize themselves. Finally, what are the differences, spatial and temporal distributions of all these patterns and their variants. This first step allows a comprehensive review of the mode of graphical representation of the Lapita and emphasize its importance in our understanding of society at the turn of second and first millennia BC. In a third step, observations and results are linked with other archaeological data, as well as those from historical linguistics and ethnology in an attempt to show that Lapita decorations can probably be seen as the reflections of intangible aspects -mainly social- of Lapita: the relationship to the organization of Lapita groups in the vast territory between New Guinea and Samoa, through the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji and the archipelagos of Tonga and Wallis and Futuna. This type of study allows an opening for the Pacific Research into social assumptions reconstructions opening new perspectives for understanding the cultures so-called "oral tradition."

This thesis presents the results of experimental and archaeological investigations of microscopic plant residues on Lapita pottery from the western Pacific Islands. Lapita is a critical phase in the culture history of the Pacific region and has been associated with the development and spread of a subsistence system based on the cultivation of tropical starch crops, particularly those in the taro-yam complex. However, few archaeobotanical remains been recovered from Lapita sites to lend empirical support to this model. This study explores whether microscopic starch granules, calcium oxalate crystals and other plant microremains on Lapita potsherds can provide direct evidence for the preparation and consumption of staple plant foods, as well as important clues to the function and use of pottery in Lapita society, matters which remain the subject of some debate. This research was undertaken in two main phases. The first involved a series of technical studies aimed at developing methods for recovering and identifying starch and raphide residues on archaeological pottery. Changes to starch during cooking and charring under different heat and moisture conditions were examined to understand how granules survive differentially depending on cooking method and food type. Various methods used to extract native starch granules from charred residues were then tested and a procedure based on a weak oxidising treatment was developed for use on the archaeological residues. The reliability of calcium oxalate raphide analysis, which is much less developed than that of starch, was also critically assessed. Issues with previous identifications of raphides in Pacific microfossil assemblages were highlighted. Morphological criteria were presented for identifying aroid raphides more accurately and chemical tests were developed to differentiate them from naturally-occurring calcite crystals, which were abundant in the sites analysed. The second phase of research analysed microscopic residues on Lapita and post-Lapita potsherds from archaeological sites in the Mussau and Anir Islands (PNG), the Reef Islands (Solomon Islands), New Caledonia, and the Samoan Archipelago. Despite the generally small quantities of residue recovered from the archaeological samples, several sherds with possible use-related starch residues were identified. These initial results indicate that ceramic vessels, including both plain and dentate-decorated Lapita wares, were employed in a variety of tasks involving the cooking and/or consumption, and storage or preparation of starch-based foods. It was also found that these were among the activities performed at the ‘special purpose’ stilt house structure at the ECA site, which raises questions about the possible social or ritual status of staple starch resources in Lapita society. One of the most significant findings to emerge from this study was of taro (Colocasia esculenta) starch granules on sherds from the ERA Lapita site (Anir, New Ireland), and granules identified tentatively as taro on sherds from RF-2 (Reef Islands) and Mulifanua (Samoa). A number of unidentified morphotypes were also present on the Lapita and post-Lapita sherds, suggesting that a variety of plants not among the key root crops were also exploited. These may include some of the many fruits and nuts attested in archaeobotanical assemblages from Pacific sites. The ceramic residue data complement starch and phytolith evidence recovered from cultural sediments from RF-2, which demonstrate the presence and probable exploitation of a suite of crop plants typically associated with the Lapita ‘economic package’. In addition to taro, these include at least one cultivated species of Eumusa banana, non-domesticated (seeded) Australimusa bananas, bamboo, and possibly also Canarium, coconut, and sago. These data support models suggesting that Lapita groups were cultivating and transporting subsistence plants, including at least one of the major root crop complexes, and associated knowledge of their production and preparation across the western Pacific from the mid-late Holocene. This study demonstrated that analyses of microscopic starch residues on archaeological ceramics from the Pacific region can yield significant insights into vessel use and plant exploitation. Further methodological refinements should aim to increase starch yields, which will enable stronger associations between residues and vessel uses to be established. Expansion of reference collections is also required so that more precise identifications of the specific plant foods involved can be achieved.

This thesis presents the results of experimental and archaeological investigations of microscopic plant residues on Lapita pottery from the western Pacific Islands. Lapita is a critical phase in the culture history of the Pacific region and has been associated with the development and spread of a subsistence system based on the cultivation of tropical starch crops, particularly those in the taro-yam complex. However, few archaeobotanical remains been recovered from Lapita sites to lend empirical support to this model. This study explores whether microscopic starch granules, calcium oxalate crystals and other plant microremains on Lapita potsherds can provide direct evidence for the preparation and consumption of staple plant foods, as well as important clues to the function and use of pottery in Lapita society, matters which remain the subject of some debate. This research was undertaken in two main phases. The first involved a series of technical studies aimed at developing methods for recovering and identifying starch and raphide residues on archaeological pottery. Changes to starch during cooking and charring under different heat and moisture conditions were examined to understand how granules survive differentially depending on cooking method and food type. Various methods used to extract native starch granules from charred residues were then tested and a procedure based on a weak oxidising treatment was developed for use on the archaeological residues. The reliability of calcium oxalate raphide analysis, which is much less developed than that of starch, was also critically assessed. Issues with previous identifications of raphides in Pacific microfossil assemblages were highlighted. Morphological criteria were presented for identifying aroid raphides more accurately and chemical tests were developed to differentiate them from naturally-occurring calcite crystals, which were abundant in the sites analysed. The second phase of research analysed microscopic residues on Lapita and post-Lapita potsherds from archaeological sites in the Mussau and Anir Islands (PNG), the Reef Islands (Solomon Islands), New Caledonia, and the Samoan Archipelago. Despite the generally small quantities of residue recovered from the archaeological samples, several sherds with possible use-related starch residues were identified. These initial results indicate that ceramic vessels, including both plain and dentate-decorated Lapita wares, were employed in a variety of tasks involving the cooking and/or consumption, and storage or preparation of starch-based foods. It was also found that these were among the activities performed at the ‘special purpose’ stilt house structure at the ECA site, which raises questions about the possible social or ritual status of staple starch resources in Lapita society. One of the most significant findings to emerge from this study was of taro (Colocasia esculenta) starch granules on sherds from the ERA Lapita site (Anir, New Ireland), and granules identified tentatively as taro on sherds from RF-2 (Reef Islands) and Mulifanua (Samoa). A number of unidentified morphotypes were also present on the Lapita and post-Lapita sherds, suggesting that a variety of plants not among the key root crops were also exploited. These may include some of the many fruits and nuts attested in archaeobotanical assemblages from Pacific sites. The ceramic residue data complement starch and phytolith evidence recovered from cultural sediments from RF-2, which demonstrate the presence and probable exploitation of a suite of crop plants typically associated with the Lapita ‘economic package’. In addition to taro, these include at least one cultivated species of Eumusa banana, non-domesticated (seeded) Australimusa bananas, bamboo, and possibly also Canarium, coconut, and sago. These data support models suggesting that Lapita groups were cultivating and transporting subsistence plants, including at least one of the major root crop complexes, and associated knowledge of their production and preparation across the western Pacific from the mid-late Holocene. This study demonstrated that analyses of microscopic starch residues on archaeological ceramics from the Pacific region can yield significant insights into vessel use and plant exploitation. Further methodological refinements should aim to increase starch yields, which will enable stronger associations between residues and vessel uses to be established. Expansion of reference collections is also required so that more precise identifications of the specific plant foods involved can be achieved.

Thesis (M.A.)--Rijksuniversiteit, Leiden, 1997. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.A.)--Theoretical Archaeology Rijksuniversiteit Leiden, August 1997. / Title from start screen (viewed Sept. 10, 2004). "August 1997."

Cette étude a pour but de documenter le climat à deux périodes clés de l'Holocène à partir d'archives biocarbonatées. Le potentiel du bénitier Tridacna maxima (géochimie et croissance) comme archive paléoclimatique a été montré. Des spécimens fossiles de cette espèce ont ensuite été utilisés pour documenter la variabilité climatique du Pacifique Sud-Ouest durant la transition Holocène inférieur-Holocène moyen (7.0-6.0 ka BP) et lors de la migration Lapita en Océanie Lointaine (3.5-2.5 ka BP) en complément d'enregistrements issus d'autres bénitiers et d'un corail massif Porites sp. Des enregistrements Sr/Ca de Porites sp. ont aussi été utilisés comme paléothermomètre. A 7.0-6.0 ka BP, la phase de réchauffement postglaciaire était terminée et la marge sud-est de la Warm Pool était dans sa position actuelle. L'influence saisonnière de la SPCZ était plus faible qu'actuellement dans le Pacifique S.O., montrant que la SPCZ était située au nord de sa position actuelle. La variabilité El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) était réduite de 20-30% par rapport à la variabilité actuelle. La période coincidant avec l'émergence de la culture Lapita, 3.6-3.4 ka BP, est caractérisée par un état moyen de type La Niña sur le Pacifique S.O avec une forte variabilité ENSO. Le climat a donc pu agir comme déclencheur et/ou favoriser la migration Lapita à 3.2-2.7 ka BP. En effet, des conditions climatiques instables peuvent favoriser le développement et l'expansion de populations nomades dépendantes des ressources marines, comme l'était la population Lapita.