Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Law / The research is divided in seven sections where the problem of the interpretation and applicability of Art XXIII GATT to the Laws and Practices under the Anti-Dumping Agreement is examined. Chapter I identifies the problems, raises the research question and gives an overview of the current state of the matters under observation. In Chapter II the general theory of interpretation is studied and subsequently applied to Art XXIII specifically, taking into account the meaning, scope, historical evolution and current interpretations of Art XXIII. Chapter III revises the theory of coherent interpretation of Art XXIII in connection with the Anti-Dumping Agreement specifically. The constitutional structure and principles of the WTO are questioned, dissected and supported to decant a handful of fundamental principles which shall inform the rest of the interpretation applied in the research. This chapter takes the interpretation from an abstract perspective to a material view of a coherent interpretation of both Art. XXIII and the Anti-Dumping Agreement. Chapter IV revises the facts, laws and practices of Anti-Dumping being used as a protectionist measure in disguise both using procedural and substantial arguments which are illustrated in the laws and practices of seven countries. The findings in Chapter IV lead to Chapter V which questions the legitimacy and validity of considering the possible applicability of Art XXIII to the anti-Dumping Agreement as it is currently implemented by the WTO membership. Those reflections lead to the consideration and mention of Competition as a public good in international trade in Chapter VI, which is a key element for the final findings of this research. The conclusion of this research is inclined to suggest that in order to keep the legal system of the WTO functional, a stronger economic constitutional approach that allows for the application of art XXIII in situations subversive to the principles of free trade is necessary. The adaptation of a theory of an economic constitution is proposed.

Thesis advisor: Frank Gollop / Thesis advisor: James Dalton / There is a push for more electricity from renewable energy sources in the United States and around the world, but debate exists over the best policy to achieve this growth. Two common policies include renewable portfolio standards and feed-in tariffs. Using two Energy Information Administration forecasts from 2005 to 2030, this study examines the impacts of possible federal renewable portfolio standards in the United States through a benefit-costs analysis. Using the same benefit-cost analysis, a feed-in tariff policy in Germany and a unique renewables obligation in the United Kingdom are also examined and the results are compared. This study finds that only one of the four examined policies has a net benefit to society, the policy being a renewable portfolio standard requiring 25% of electricity supplied in the United States to be from renewable energy sources by the year 2025. The economic theory gives support to the superiority of renewable portfolio standards, although more study in needed on the dynamic efficiencies and other possible policy options. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2009. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: College Honors Program. / Discipline: Economics Honors Program. / Discipline: Economics.

Atualmente, o setor elétrico se prepara para o terceiro ciclo de revisões tarifárias das distribuidoras. Com o cenário regulatório mais consolidado em termos de definição da receita requerida, os agentes estão voltando suas atenções para a necessária adequação e correção da estrutura de tarifas. De fato, a ANEEL definiu temas para os projetos de pesquisa e desenvolvimento (P&D) considerados estratégicos para o desenvolvimento do setor elétrico nacional, dentre eles, o de Estrutura Tarifária. Recentemente, a agência também divulgou consultas públicas que tratam da alocação dos custos de referência que formam as tarifas, dos sinais de preço e das tarifas para os consumidores atendidos em BT. Em sintonia com a discussão atual do setor de distribuição de energia elétrica, a tese defendida neste trabalho procura analisar a metodologia de cálculo das tarifas, sistematizando um conhecimento disperso em várias referências bibliografias. Para isso são discutidos os principais aspectos da teoria de precificação de ponta, abrangendo as abordagens americana, britânica e francesa, e pesquisada a conexão entre a lógica embutida na alocação horária dos custos e os critérios de dimensionamento do sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica. Visando refletir os custos decorrentes do atendimento de cada tipo de consumidor, indicando o melhor aproveitamento do sistema elétrico de distribuição, são apresentadas propostas de aprimoramentos e inovação cujos destaques são a mudança de paradigma da alocação dos custos de expansão somente no horário de ponta do sistema, a definição ex-post dos postos tarifários, a agregação média dos custos horários para formar as tarifas de referência dos postos tarifários e um estudo de caso com a aplicação da metodologia sobre as curvas de carga abstraídas do possível efeito do sinal tarifário existente. A tese defendida neste trabalho busca provar, então, que a metodologia atual, embora desenhada na época em que o setor elétrico era verticalizado, pode ser adaptada segundo os aprimoramentos e inovações propostas e, assim, aplicada ao ambiente atual no qual as empresas e as tarifas estão segregadas. / Currently, the electric energy sector is preparing for the third round of the distributors tariff revisions. Since the regulatory environment is more consolidated in terms of required revenue, the agents are turning their attention to the necessary adjustment and correction of the tariff structure. In fact, ANEEL (regulatory agency) set topics for R&D projects considered strategic for the development of national energy sector, among them, the Tariff Structure Project. Recently, the regulatory agency also announced public hearings dealing with the costs allocation, price signals and tariffs for low-voltage consumers. In line with this debate, the thesis finds to analyze the methodology for calculating tariffs, systematizing knowledge dispersed in various references. For this, it discusses the major aspects of peak pricing theory, including American, British and French approaches, and researches the connection between the logic built into the costs allocation by hour and the criteria for electricity distribution system planning. Aiming to reflect the costs of each customer type, indicating a better utilization of the distribution system, are proposed improvements and innovation whose highlights are: shifting the idea that expansion costs should be only allocated in peak time of the system, setting the periods after calculating the costs, changing how to derive the reference charges by average aggregation of the costs and applying the methodology on altered load curves. Finally, this thesis seeks to prove that the current methodology, although designed by the time in which the electricity sector was aggregated, can be adapted according to the proposed improvements and innovations, and thus applied to the current environment in which electric energy businesses and tariffs are separated in generation, transmission, and distribution and retail areas.

This dissertation argues for the adoption of a new interpretative standard that urges the WTO adjudicator to explicitly take account of the economic heterogeneity of the WTO Membership when construing exemption provisions in the GATT 1994. In particular, the judicial decision maker should construe and interpret exemption provisions using the embedded standard of review, such that the Member States’ economic conditions enlighten the contextual interpretation of the language of the provision. This multilateral standard of review compels the adjudicator to accord conditional deference to developmental policies, as applied by a Member State in expression of its preferred economic strategy to expand the trade and production of goods and services. This dissertation examines the history of the standard of review in the GATT 1947 and GATT 1994 in order to critically examine its application to the construction and interpretation of the exemption provision of Article XI:2(a) GATT 1994. The proposed multilateral standard of review overcomes the post-modern critique of judicial practice by emphasizing the collaborative intent of the Membership, as revealed through the adjudicator’s understanding of the object and purpose of the agreement.

Atualmente, o setor elétrico se prepara para o terceiro ciclo de revisões tarifárias das distribuidoras. Com o cenário regulatório mais consolidado em termos de definição da receita requerida, os agentes estão voltando suas atenções para a necessária adequação e correção da estrutura de tarifas. De fato, a ANEEL definiu temas para os projetos de pesquisa e desenvolvimento (P&D) considerados estratégicos para o desenvolvimento do setor elétrico nacional, dentre eles, o de Estrutura Tarifária. Recentemente, a agência também divulgou consultas públicas que tratam da alocação dos custos de referência que formam as tarifas, dos sinais de preço e das tarifas para os consumidores atendidos em BT. Em sintonia com a discussão atual do setor de distribuição de energia elétrica, a tese defendida neste trabalho procura analisar a metodologia de cálculo das tarifas, sistematizando um conhecimento disperso em várias referências bibliografias. Para isso são discutidos os principais aspectos da teoria de precificação de ponta, abrangendo as abordagens americana, britânica e francesa, e pesquisada a conexão entre a lógica embutida na alocação horária dos custos e os critérios de dimensionamento do sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica. Visando refletir os custos decorrentes do atendimento de cada tipo de consumidor, indicando o melhor aproveitamento do sistema elétrico de distribuição, são apresentadas propostas de aprimoramentos e inovação cujos destaques são a mudança de paradigma da alocação dos custos de expansão somente no horário de ponta do sistema, a definição ex-post dos postos tarifários, a agregação média dos custos horários para formar as tarifas de referência dos postos tarifários e um estudo de caso com a aplicação da metodologia sobre as curvas de carga abstraídas do possível efeito do sinal tarifário existente. A tese defendida neste trabalho busca provar, então, que a metodologia atual, embora desenhada na época em que o setor elétrico era verticalizado, pode ser adaptada segundo os aprimoramentos e inovações propostas e, assim, aplicada ao ambiente atual no qual as empresas e as tarifas estão segregadas. / Currently, the electric energy sector is preparing for the third round of the distributors tariff revisions. Since the regulatory environment is more consolidated in terms of required revenue, the agents are turning their attention to the necessary adjustment and correction of the tariff structure. In fact, ANEEL (regulatory agency) set topics for R&D projects considered strategic for the development of national energy sector, among them, the Tariff Structure Project. Recently, the regulatory agency also announced public hearings dealing with the costs allocation, price signals and tariffs for low-voltage consumers. In line with this debate, the thesis finds to analyze the methodology for calculating tariffs, systematizing knowledge dispersed in various references. For this, it discusses the major aspects of peak pricing theory, including American, British and French approaches, and researches the connection between the logic built into the costs allocation by hour and the criteria for electricity distribution system planning. Aiming to reflect the costs of each customer type, indicating a better utilization of the distribution system, are proposed improvements and innovation whose highlights are: shifting the idea that expansion costs should be only allocated in peak time of the system, setting the periods after calculating the costs, changing how to derive the reference charges by average aggregation of the costs and applying the methodology on altered load curves. Finally, this thesis seeks to prove that the current methodology, although designed by the time in which the electricity sector was aggregated, can be adapted according to the proposed improvements and innovations, and thus applied to the current environment in which electric energy businesses and tariffs are separated in generation, transmission, and distribution and retail areas.

The study investigates the extent, development and nature of foreign direct investments in Sweden during the years 1895-1945. The work also has a qualitative aspect, which may be summarized as a question: Why do foreign companies undertake direct investments in Sweden? The basic premise has been that the companies' decisions are based on their own calculations regarding profit interests and structural conditions on the market, but these decisions are also influenced by various power relations. The aim is to discover partly the motives behind a company's readiness to enter the Swedish market, and partly the national and international power relations that furnished the institutional conditions favouring or hindering the making of direct investments in Sweden. The study shows that direct investments were much more extensive before 1945, above all before World War One, than has previously been assumed. Slightly more than half the direct investments were made by Denmark and Norway, and the greatest contribution from the major industrial nations was made by Germany. American direct investments increased in importance during the interwar years, and represented the greatest volume of activity in the foreign sector by the end of the 1930's. Manufacturing companies were the most important before World War One, as a result of direct investments in Swedish natural resources and the consumer goods industry. During the interwar years direct investments inclined more to forward linkage, and the majority were made in the chemical and engineering industries. Conditions in Sweden exerted most influence on direct investments before World War One - for example, Swedish tariff policy. Sweden's attempts to protect itself against the imperialism of the large industrial nations resulted moreover in 1916 in legislation which severely restricted the possibilities of making direct investments in the raw materials industry. After World War One, motives connected with specific countries and owneers were more important. At this time conflicts between American and European, primarily German, interests also entered the picture. One of the circumstances affecting direct investments was the increasing importance of the Scandinavian countries in the world market. This led to altered conditions between the Scandinavian countries, and partly to the realization by international business that Sweden must be seen as a market in its own right and not just as a sub-market in the Scandinavian region. / digitalisering@umu

A paradigm shift in distribution system design and planning is being led by the deregulation of the power industry and the increasing adoption of distributed generation (DG). Technology advances have made DG investments feasible by both local distribution companies (LDCs) and small power producers (SPPs). LDCs are interested in finding optimal long term plans that best serve their customers at the lowest cost. SPPs, as private entities, are concerned about maximizing their rates of return. Also keenly interested in distribution design and planning is the government, which, through an electricity regulator, strives to meet DG penetration and emissions reduction goals through policy implementations. This thesis first examines the distribution system planning problem from the LDC's perspective. An innovative hierarchical dynamic optimization model is proposed for the planning of distribution systems and the energy scheduling of units that is also capable of reconciling uncoordinated SPP investments in DG. The first stage of the two-stage framework consists of a siting-cum-period planning model that sets element sizing and commissioning dates. The second stage consists of a capacity-cum-production planning model that finalizes element capacities and energy import/export and production schedules. The proposed framework is demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system. Four case studies encompassing different policy sets are also conducted, demonstrating that this model's usefulness also extends to predicting the impact of different energy policies on distribution system operation and economics. The analysis of different policy sets is further expanded upon through the proposal of a new mathematical model that approaches the distribution design problem from the regulator's perspective. Various case studies examining policies that may be used by the regulator to meet DG penetration and emissions goals, through DG investment, are constructed. A combination of feed-in-tariffs, CO$_2$ tax, and cap-and-trade mechanisms are among the policies studied. The results, in the context of Ontario, Canada and its Standard Offer Program, are discussed, with respect to achieving objectives in DG investment, participation by SPPs, consumer costs, and uncertainty in carbon market prices. In jurisdictions such as Ontario, the LDC cannot invest in its own DG capacity but must accommodate those of SPPs. With the successful implementation of DG investment incentives by the regulator, there is a potential for significant investments in DG by SPPs, which may exceed that of the LDCs ability to absorb. This thesis proposes a novel method that can be used by the regulator or LDC to fairly assess, coordinate, and approve multiple competing investments proposals while maintaining operational feasibility of the distribution system. This method uses a feedback between the LDC and SPPs to achieve maximum investor participation while adhering to the technical operational limits of the distribution system. The proposed scheme is successfully demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system, where it is shown to increase SPP-DG investments and production, improve the system's voltage profile, and reduce losses.

A paradigm shift in distribution system design and planning is being led by the deregulation of the power industry and the increasing adoption of distributed generation (DG). Technology advances have made DG investments feasible by both local distribution companies (LDCs) and small power producers (SPPs). LDCs are interested in finding optimal long term plans that best serve their customers at the lowest cost. SPPs, as private entities, are concerned about maximizing their rates of return. Also keenly interested in distribution design and planning is the government, which, through an electricity regulator, strives to meet DG penetration and emissions reduction goals through policy implementations. This thesis first examines the distribution system planning problem from the LDC's perspective. An innovative hierarchical dynamic optimization model is proposed for the planning of distribution systems and the energy scheduling of units that is also capable of reconciling uncoordinated SPP investments in DG. The first stage of the two-stage framework consists of a siting-cum-period planning model that sets element sizing and commissioning dates. The second stage consists of a capacity-cum-production planning model that finalizes element capacities and energy import/export and production schedules. The proposed framework is demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system. Four case studies encompassing different policy sets are also conducted, demonstrating that this model's usefulness also extends to predicting the impact of different energy policies on distribution system operation and economics. The analysis of different policy sets is further expanded upon through the proposal of a new mathematical model that approaches the distribution design problem from the regulator's perspective. Various case studies examining policies that may be used by the regulator to meet DG penetration and emissions goals, through DG investment, are constructed. A combination of feed-in-tariffs, CO$_2$ tax, and cap-and-trade mechanisms are among the policies studied. The results, in the context of Ontario, Canada and its Standard Offer Program, are discussed, with respect to achieving objectives in DG investment, participation by SPPs, consumer costs, and uncertainty in carbon market prices. In jurisdictions such as Ontario, the LDC cannot invest in its own DG capacity but must accommodate those of SPPs. With the successful implementation of DG investment incentives by the regulator, there is a potential for significant investments in DG by SPPs, which may exceed that of the LDCs ability to absorb. This thesis proposes a novel method that can be used by the regulator or LDC to fairly assess, coordinate, and approve multiple competing investments proposals while maintaining operational feasibility of the distribution system. This method uses a feedback between the LDC and SPPs to achieve maximum investor participation while adhering to the technical operational limits of the distribution system. The proposed scheme is successfully demonstrated on a 32-bus radial distribution system, where it is shown to increase SPP-DG investments and production, improve the system's voltage profile, and reduce losses.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Florida State University, 2004. / Advisor: Dr. Stefan C. Norrbin, Florida State University, College of Social Sciences, Department of Economics. Title and description from dissertation home page (viewed June 16, 2004). Includes bibliographical references.

This dissertation consists of three essays in International Trade. The first essay studies the impact of changing tariffs on the range of goods countries export to the United States. The empirical analysis shows that tariffs tend to have a statistically significant but small impact: at best 5 percent of the increasing extensive margin for 1989-1999 and 12 percent for 1996-2006 is explained by tariff reductions. This suggests the extensive margin has not amplified the impact of tariffs on trade flows to such an extent that the relatively moderate tariff reductions since WW II can explain the strong growth of world trade. The second essay investigates the sector and country determinants of the range of goods that countries export to the United States. Besides relating the traditional determinants of comparative advantage, sectors’ factor intensities interacted with countries’ factor abundance to the extensive margin in a sector, the empirical investigation includes interactions between sector-level measures of intermediate intensity and trade frictions. Consistent with hypotheses about fragmentation, the results show that closer countries and countries with lower tariffs imposed on them export a wider range of goods in sectors that have large intermediate cost shares. The impact of trade frictions is, however, far less pronounced for the more skilled-labor intensive sectors that are characterized by use of a greater range of intermediates. The third essay studies the impact of trade liberalizations on U.S. bilateral trade from 1989-2001 with a focus on the influence of exporting country liberalizations which matter when exports are produced with imported intermediates. Guided by extensions of the Eaton and Kortum (2002) model which allows for production to involve the use of imported intermediates, the essay estimates a structural equation that links U.S. bilateral trade flows to both intermediate tariffs imposed by countries exporting to the United States and U.S. tariffs. The empirical estimates suggest that especially for less developed countries their own liberalizations have been quantitatively much more important in explaining bilateral trade growth with an effect 3 times larger than the impact of U.S. liberalizations. / text