Este estudo descreve os custos tributários que incidem sobre os contribuintes, tendo como enfoque principal a carga tributária. A carga tributária é conceituada e analisada nos seus aspectos teóricos, com destaque para a justa distribuição do ônus tributário entre as pessoas. No segundo momento são apresentadas e comparadas as diferentes metodologias das estimativas de carga tributária no Brasil, ressaltando as fontes de dados e as hipóteses simplificadoras de cada uma delas. Em seguida é descrito o procedimento para estimar no final de 2006 a carga tributária brasileira para 2005, evidenciando a disponibilidade de dados e as dificuldades de realizar essa tarefa. Finalmente são qualificadas as estimativas das diferentes instituições brasileiras em relação a seus objetivos, permitindo uma melhor compreensão das razões de alguma diferença nos valores calculados, que dependem basicamente do momento de sua divulgação e de sua finalidade. / This paper describes the tax expenses that fall on the contributors, and its main approach is the tax ratio. The tax ratio is conceptualized and analyzed in its theoretical aspects, emphasizing the fair distribution of the tax onus among people. Later, we present and compare the different methodologies of the estimates of tax ratio in Brazil, highlighting the sources of data and the simplifying hypothesis of each one of them. It is described the proceedings to estimate the tax ratio of 2005, at the end of 2006, highlighting the availability of data, as well as the difficulties to accomplish such task. Finally, we qualify the estimates of the different Brazilian institutions regarding their aims, allowing a better understanding of the reason for some discrepancies in the numbers, which basically depend on the moment of their release and on their purpose.

The purpose of the study is to analyse tax reform measures to secure the tax revenue base, in particular the personal income tax structure of South Africa. The main objectives are: firstly, to identify personal income tax reform interventions so as to align the personal income tax structure in South Africa with international best practices. Secondly, the impact of tax reforms on revenue collection, given optimal economic growth levels, is determined. Thirdly, to determine the best tax reform scenario which could minimise the individual tax burden and maximise its efficiency. Lastly, the impact of the suggested tax reforms on fairness as a principle of a good tax system is evaluated. A static micro-simulation model is developed from survey data and used to simulate the proposed tax reforms. Different tax reforms were selected from a study of international tax reform trends and an analysis of the South African personal income tax structure. The literature provides clear margins for the structuring of tax bands and threshold margins. Tax elasticities are estimated in order to explain the methodology for determining the impact of tax reforms. These elasticities include the elasticities for determining the progressiveness of the PIT structure, determining the deadweight loss (tax efficiency) and also to determine the optimal levels of taxes and economic growth and revenue maximisation. The different tax reform scenarios take the economy closer to or further away from optimum growth and optimum revenue. The results show that as far as marginal rates are concerned, a lowering in rates to levels on par with South Africa’s peers offers potential for improved levels of efficiency with the tax burden equal to or even below the optimal tax ratio from an economic growth point of view. Although such a ratio is below the optimal revenue ratio the results suggest that the loss in revenue could be minimised over time through a resultant increase in productivity and economic growth. By adjusting the non-taxable thresholds and taxable income bands according to the algorithm defined in the best practice scenario, more taxpayers will be included into the tax net but with a net decrease in tax liability. As a result the tax/GDP level also declines to a level below the optimal growth level but tax efficiency increases. The resultant loss in revenue will have to be recouped through increases in other than individual income taxes but improved levels of tax morality because of the lower margins for each tax band and increased productivity might also contribute to increased revenue performance. The tax structure is also more progressive which contributes towards the “fairness” of the tax regime. Regarding tax expenditure reforms, the analysis shows that medical tax credits offer a more equitable form of relief than medical deductions which substantiate this kind of reform as already implemented by government and which is to be fully phased in over the next couple of years. Tax liability is slightly lower in the case of medical credits compared to medical deductions but the difference is only marginal as far as net revenue and optimal growth and efficiency is concerned. However, a medical credit which increases disposable income at the lower end of the scale and discriminates against higher income groups also improves progressiveness of the tax regime and therefore the fairness thereof accordingly. Finally, the demographic impact of the suggested reforms also shows some important trends. Better education improves skills levels which seems to be positively correlated to taxable income levels. As far as age is concerned, the analysis shows that a substantial number of taxpayers in the categories below the age of 24 and above 65 fall within the lower taxable income groups. Those are also the most vulnerable groups from a subsistence point of view. Thus, tax reform that specifically improves their levels of disposable income should be prioritised in order to address equity and fairness as objectives for a “good” tax structure. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / gm2014 / Economics / Unrestricted

This thesis examines how the size of the municipality affects its finances in terms of income and expenditure. The aim of this study is to assess the benefits of the merger of small villages to larger town and reveal some areas where the size of the municipality plays a role in terms of its financing. The thesis composes of three parts. The first chapter is an overview of theoretical knowledge about the topic to faciliate understanding of the following two parts. These are already showing a practical example - a case study of marging six small villages with a larger town. The second part of the analysis focuses on the revenue site of their budgets. Finally, the third section is dealing with the expenditure site of municipal budgets. Partial conclusions on benefits and drawbacks of merging municipalities are made in each part of the work.

Diploma thesis is focused on regions' tax revenue predictions. Emphasis is placed on determining whether these predictions could be deliberately distorted by their creators. The thesis evaluates prediction of all regions with the exception region Prague City which is subject to different rules of tax revenue assignment. Besides quantifying deviations in real tax revenue collection and prediction of individual regions, evaluation and exploration of susceptibility to systematic distortion thesis also deals with the comparison regions 'errors in predictions and errors made by Ministry of Finance of the Czech Republic. Theses of deliberate misrepresentation tax revenues volume is not confirmed as result of statistical analysis performed. The idea that regions compile their predictions according to the Ministry of Finance forecasts, which are known before creating their own predictions, is also refused.

The diploma thesis describes one of fiscal powers of municipality, the possibility use local coefficient. In addition to local coefficient, the work deals with a coefficient of 1.5. It focuses on the development of the local coefficient from 2009 to 2012. This thesis is focused on monitoring number of municipalities, which this local coefficient has. The conclusion is that the local coefficient uses only a small number of municipalities. The work is focused on the size of the local coefficients. The research shows that the local coefficient has many changes. Municipalities coefficient introduced or canceled and re-introduced, they also change the size. Less than half of the municipalities which have introduced local coefficient in the first year of potential introduction, the coefficient left unchanged throughout the period. The thesis also mentioned information for the year 2013.

This study seeks a method of evaluating the local impact of changing economic conditions (such as employment, per capita income, et cetera). Specifically, measures of the impact of changing economic conditions on the services of local governments will be formulated. These measures provide a means for comparing the impact of a project (or of alternative projects) to conditions that would prevail in its (their) absence. The data used is drawn from the Virginia Impact Projection (VIP) Model in the form of statistically derived equations representing the relationships for eleven different categories of public services. The analytical framework was developed based on theories of public decision-making, public finance, and local government expenditures and services. This framework was used to analyze the per capita expenditure relationships (functions) to obtain the information required in formulating the impact measures. For individual categories of services, a SERVICE VALUE INDEX was devised to indicate changes (including shifts) in the demand for the services, and the level of provision thereof. The NET PUBLIC SERVICE BENEFIT is a measure of the overall increase (decline) in public services provision, and balances the change in levels of service on the individual categories against each other. This measure reflects the net benefits derived by the consumer-voter following her/his reallocation of expenditures given the new cost conditions, budget constraints, et cetera, as a consequence of the project. / Master of Urban Affairs

States are facing tough economic times as a result of the housing market bubble exploding. States have been declaring budget deficits and major program cuts, since revenues have not kept up with expenditures and rainy day funds have been practically exhausted. State tax revenues have decreased, resulting from a decline in income tax revenues, one of the major sources of revenues for a large number of states (41 in total). A majority of these states have come to depend heavily on the revenue they collect from income taxes, which can represent as much as 40% of state tax revenue. This thesis focuses on the impact that income tax revenue has on state budgets and how it affects certain expenditures. To provide a more complete understanding on how fiscal policy affects the citizen directly, this thesis compares the changes in state's total tax revenue and spending on education and health programs between states that levy income tax and states that do not. Data from the United States Census Bureau and the National Association of State Budget Officials was analyzed by calculating the growth rate and relevant elasticities during 2006-2010, the years before, during, and after the last recession. Results will show a difference in changes in revenue and expenditure between the two types of states and a more sensitive elasticity for non-income tax states for both revenue and expenditure. With a better understanding of how the tax base behaves and how revenue affects programs, an improved tax policy that could produce more efficient services for citizens might be created.

The thesis deals with the internal economic equilibrium of the EU member states between 2007 and 2010. In this period, which was considerably influenced by the global economic recession, a sharp deterioration in public finances and other macroeconomic indicators is apparent. The theoretical part of the thesis deals with the starting points and putting the issue of public finances. The practical part is dedicated to the development and comparison of basic indicators of internal economic balance across the member countries, especially to the depth and dynamics of the public debt. In the final part, attention is paid to the prospects of development in this field at European Union level and at the level of national states.

This diploma thesis deals with legislative changes in tax revenues of municipalities since 2001. The changes in the shared taxes and property taxes are considered. The aim is to evaluate the legislative changes related to tax revenues of municipalities and to evaluate their impact on tax revenues of the three selected small municipalities. The theoretical part of the thesis covers the legislative changes that have occurred in the law on the tax assignment and law on the tax of real estate over the last ten years, and amendment to law on the tax assignment with the expected effect from 1 January 2013. The practical part consists of an analysis of tax revenue of three selected small municipalities and their development in response to legislative changes. The last part of the thesis summarizes the most important findings. In this thesis, I came to the conclusion that in every of the three analyzed municipalities the revenues from shared taxes and from property taxes increased over the period of interest.

一、研究目的與方法： 　　我國營業稅為省（市）政府主要的財源，在省、市間存有分配不均的現象，雖直轄市按其營業稅收入總額百分之五十交付中央統籌分配省及直轄市，但實際分配的結果，以82年度為例仍是財政狀況最佳的臺北市分配最多，財政狀況最差的臺灣省分配最少，未能有效改善營業稅稅收在省、市間分配不均之現象。再者各省、市對於總繳制度、外銷財貨適用零稅率退稅、海關代徵營業稅等制度多有不滿，此等問題如何解決，值得深入研究。本文主要的目的在建立一套明確的營業稅稅收分配公式，並試擬不同的營業稅稅收分配方案，以改善目前營業稅稅收在省、市間分配不均之情況。 　　本文先探討營業稅稅收收入權應屬中央或地方政府及介紹其他聯邦體制下國家之加值稅分配情況，繼而透過我國營業稅稅收分配制度的分析，以探討造成營業稅稅收分配不均之原因，並建立一明確分配公式，配合不同之營業稅稅收分配方案，計算不同之分配結果，以作為未來營業稅稅收分配制度改革的參考。 　　二、研究發現： 　　　（一）由基本性質及租稅收入劃分原則來分析，加值稅應由中央統一徵收並屬國稅。聯邦體制國家為避免課徵加值稅後減少地方政府財源，通常採用收入分成公式將加值稅收入分配予各級地方政府。 　　　（二）營業稅在省、市之間的分配，雖已透過中央統籌分配稅之調整，但其實際分配在省、市之間仍存在水平不均的現象。 　　　（三）營業稅雖然為省（市）稅，但其制度之設計又與國稅相仿，因此，「總繳」、「海關代徵營業稅」、「外銷財貨退稅」更使目前營業稅水平分配不均。 　　　（四）營業稅水平分配不均，根本解決之道是將營業稅改列為國稅，但因修法不易且造成省市自有財源流失，故可行之道乃制定一明確之公式將營業稅統籌分配予省、市政府。 　　　（五）試擬以下三種不同分配方案： 　　　　方案一：將全部營業稅劃歸中央統籌分配稅款，再按公式分配予各省、市。 　　　　方案二：將各分支機構之營業稅分配至分支機構所在地，直轄市仍以其營業稅收百分之五十交付予中央統籌，並按公式分配省及直轄市。 　　　　方案三：各省（市）將造成目前營稅稅收分配不均因素對營業稅收入之影響金額加回或扣除，為各省（市）調整後營業稅收入，臺北市以其總收入百分之六十五，高雄市以其總收入百分之五十五交付中央統籌，按公式分配直轄市及省。 　　　　三方案均可有效解決營業稅水平分配不均的現象，但方案一可以徹底消除目前營業稅分配不均的原因，且因其將全部營業稅收列為可分配的對象最能顯示分配的公平性，故此方案為最佳的方案，但其須修法的幅度較大，短期可以方案二或方案三代之，長期改制方向仍應以方案一作為努力之標準。 　　三、研究建議： 　　為有效改善目前營業稅稅收分配不均的問題，本文對未來營業稅稅收分配制度有如下的建議： 　　　（一）設計一明確的營業稅分配公式。 　　　（二）營業稅仍列為省（市）稅。 　　　（三）公式的設計以有效解決目前營業稅稅收分配不均為目標。 　　　（四）省、市政府支付中央統籌分配稅款之比例，應考慮不同地區的財政狀況之差異。