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Published Article / A study was conducted to determine factors which caused stress for township secondary school teachers. The purpose of this paper is to determine the role of School Management Teams (SMTs) in the stressors of township secondary school teachers. A questionnaire was developed and administered on 368 teachers from the Free State Province. Once the stressors were determined, their means were used to rank them - from the most stressful to the least stressful. Only the highest 30 stressors were considered in this paper. The main stressors were: poor learner performance, poor learner discipline and poor parental involvement in school matters. It was also found that 20 of the 30 stressors were the SMTs' responsibility, seven were the parents' responsibility and three were DBE's (Department of Basic Education) responsibility. It was concluded that SMTs of the schools surveyed were unable to adequately address factors causing stress for teachers in their schools. It was recommended that SMTs should be developed, and then be held accountable for the high levels of teacher stress, and for the subsequent poor performance of teachers in their schools.

Optimistic explanatory style refers to the way in which individual’s routinely attribute cause to the events in their lives (Ambramson et al., 1978) and can be successfully enhanced through the use of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) group-based workshops (Buchanan et al., 1999; Seligman et al., 2007). It has been successfully measured via the self-report Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ: Peterson et al., 1982) and has been associated with better performance and lower levels of state anxiety following negative feedback (Martin-Krumm et al., 2003), a lower incidence of stress-related physical illness (Jackson et al., 2002; Buchanan et al., 1999), and lower levels of job-related emotional distress (Hershberger et al., 2000). In 2005, teaching was identified as the second most stressful job undertaken within the UK (Johnson et al., 2005) and two independent reviews of the teacher-stress literature both concluded that further research is required to develop effective stress-management interventions (Kyriacou, 2000; Jarvis, 2002). Furthermore, Jarvis (2002) specifically highlights CBT-based interventions as an avenue which requires research within the teacher-stress domain. In 2005, Bryant (unpublished MSc thesis) highlighted a link between optimistic explanatory style and lower levels of stress in student Physical Education (PE) teachers who were undergoing the practicum element of their one-year postgraduate diploma of education. The current thesis explored the effectiveness of a CBT-based optimism training programme in developing optimism and reducing stress in student and neophyte PE teachers. A longitudinal, repeated-measures, mixed methods design was employed in a naturalistic setting. Using a pre-test, intervention, post-test design, the effects of CBT-based training were shown to enhance optimism and positive affectivity, and reduce cognitive stress in student teachers during the practicum element of their professional training. To strengthen causal links, a dose-response design was used to provide enhanced training to a sub-group of student teachers. Although differences in optimism and perceived cognitive stress were present in the results, they were not significant. Finally, a qualitative interview based follow-up study identified that participants who had received the prolonged CBT-based optimism training exhibited higher levels of optimistic explanatory style, lower levels of stress and more dispositional optimism than participants who received either the initial or no optimism training. Theoretical and practical implications of the current findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Teaching has been reported to be one of the most stressful professions in the UK (HSE, 2000). There is vast international literature that has documented for many years the negative implications that stress and burnout can have on educators’ health and well being and the wider systems and individuals’ connected to their work. The research also clearly documents that the development of school support systems can mediate the negative effects of stress for educators (Zellars & Perrewe, 2001). Given that teachers are one of the UK’s largest groups of public sector employees (Bowers, 2001) and that the education system is once more in a period of rapid change, it makes this piece of research timely in the current context of education policy and practice. This study calls for policy makers to recognise that stress in the education system is becoming an increasingly worrying trend and one that with the right kind of support systems in place could be alleviated in the future. Focus of thesis Two papers form this thesis. A flexible design consistent with an interpretive approach and a social constructionist philosophy has been adopted. Epistemology Social Constructionism Theoretical Perspective Interpretivism Paper One Paper Two Methodology Methodology Illuminative enquiry Action Research Methods Methods Semi-structured interviews Focus group Focus group Open questionnaires The purpose of paper one was to generate new understandings and gain insights into participants’ experiences regarding school staff stress, school support systems and the implications of this. The findings from the first paper informed my second paper. In paper two I worked with school staff to develop and evaluate a support-based intervention in order to address the gaps in support that staff identified in the first paper. This thesis was conducted in a large secondary community college, with a specialist subject status. This was located in a unitary authority in the South West of England. All participants that took part in this research were employed as teachers, support staff and/or members of middle or senior management team at the school. Paper one findings The findings in this study showed school systems to be complex environments, affected greatly by a range of internal and external factors. Participants’ experiences indicated that stress and burnout are a function of the quality of work life in the education system for many, with negative implications associated with those closely connected to them and the education system. This paper contributes to the existing body of knowledge in this area by drawing participants from across the school meso system, as opposed from one part of the system, ensuring that all those working at different levels within the school were represented. A key issue uncovered by this study and adding to the existing literature in the field is the hierarchical nature of schooling. This hierarchy served to maintain the causes of stress experienced by my participants. These causes were systemic in nature as the issues raised were common across my participants and originated from the way the school system was organised and operated. The implication of this is that the focus of support needs to be aimed at adapting the school environment to reduce the main areas of stress faced by teachers and support staff and helping teachers to deal more positively with the stress factors within the environments and systems in which they work. The evidence also showed that my participants had a limited knowledge of the wider roles of the EPS and this may be significant area for the local authority in which this research was conducted to focus on in the future. This paper’s contribution is timely given the current context of education policy and practice Paper two findings The focus of this paper was developing and evaluating, in collaboration with participants, a staff support-based intervention. The staff’s support intervention of choice was a series of short training workshops focused on developing a better understanding of stress, promoting EHWB, assertiveness and methods of support. There were four stages to the creation of the intervention: Development of the intervention (through a focus group and the collaboration of school staff); Recruitment of participants (conducted through the senior management team through emails and staff reminders); Implementation of the intervention (five one hour, after-school workshops, using a range of teaching strategies, including practical skills; Outcomes (gained through an open pre and post training questionnaire which considered the practical strategies the participants had adopted from the workshop and applied to their practice). Despite working with staff including teachers, non teachers and senior staff to design the intervention, attendance at the after-school training workshops was poor, with only five members of the school’s support and special needs team attending. There were no teachers or members of the senior management team present. However those staff that did attend the training intervention provided positive feedback and found it useful in their practice. The questionnaires suggested that the training increased staff’s knowledge of how to manage their stress and to promote their well-being. Staff also stated that they were able to apply the practical strategies provided directly to their practice. One of the main purposes of paper two was to begin the process of change in participants’ perceptions and practice. As a direct result of conducting this piece of research the school of focus have set up a staff well-being forum, open to all staff, to meet on a termly basis to discuss matters relating to staff EHWB and support. The school are also considering setting up staff consultation groups for the teaching assistants in the future, in addition to creating a staff well being notice board, a suggestion box, having a staff well being awareness day, creating a staff well being policy and also providing yearly drop in sessions for staff on stress management. The role of the EP EPs are well placed to offer their services to schools in supporting them with examining professional support systems. EPs are experienced researchers and could conduct small pieces of individual school-based research looking at those areas of the workplace where stress is experienced the most and be able to identify gaps in staff support systems. EPs are equipped with the training and experience to provide bespoke packages of support for individual schools that may include staff training aimed at prioritising staff support and EHWB both in policy and practice. It seems then that EPs are well placed to work in collaboration with schools to develop their staff support systems in this area of staff development and school improvement.

This study explored the extent to which teacher stress management and wellness could be mediated by the comprehensive school health [CSH] model, and in turn, if improvements in staff wellness could strengthen engagement and sustainability in CSH. CSH is a framework for promoting wellbeing within school communities, encouraging lifelong engagement in healthy living practices. The research explored the relationship between decreasing teacher stress, improving teacher wellness, and establishing effective, sustainable CSH. Grounded theory methodology was used to explain phenomena of interest to the researcher (CSH and teacher stress and wellness) through interpretation of the perspective and context of those who experienced it (Birks & Mills, 2011). Grounded in field data collected through constructivist design and focused on participants’ perspectives, feelings, and beliefs (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010), in tandem with relevant research literature and researcher memos, an enhanced understanding of CSH and teacher wellness was constructed. Data collection and analysis uncovered the richness of participants’ lived experiences and built understanding of CSH implementation and sustainability. The study suggests that an interdependent relationship exists between CSH and teacher wellness, and emphasizes the importance of relationship building at all stakeholder levels in education. Relationship building encourages shared responsibilities among stakeholders to address challenges and teacher supports, and inspire action to establish effective and sustainable school cultures of wellness. In combination with connections to passion, purpose and ownership, change possibilities and sustainability are enhanced. Healthy stakeholder relationships may be a prerequisite to not only CSH sustainability, but perhaps the success and staying-power of any change initiative in education. Considering the reports of teacher workload and stress, and minimal evidence addressing improvement and empowerment through wellness supports, the results provide important suggestions for enhancing CSH and addressing the fundamental building blocks of change and sustainability: establishing trust, cultivating ownership, and building mutually respectful relationships across the hierarchy of education. The study opens the door for longitudinal exploration of a comprehensive approach to CSH, from teacher education to K to 12 initiatives, observing teacher health outcomes, student health outcomes, the interplay between those and learner outcomes, and determinants of effective and sustainable school cultures of wellness.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a difference between the implementation of positive behavior supports and teacher stress? Previous research conducted by Ross, Romer, and Horner (2011) reported that teachers who work in schools that effectively implement Positive Behavior Supports (PBIS) had lower levels of stress and higher levels of efficacy. The current study investigated the difference between the PBIS and teacher stress. Additionally, this study sought to determine if teachers age, years of teaching experience, and gender had an impact on teacher stress. Data collection strategies included two surveys, Effective Behavior Support and the Teacher Stress Inventory. The survey instrument consisted of 65 statements that asked respondents to indicate their degree of agreement on a 7-point Likert scale. Using two ANOVA’s and two independent sample t-test, 104 participant surveys across three school district groups were analyzed. Results revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in positive behavior supports and interventions and teacher stress. Additionally, there were no statistically significant difference in teachers age, years of teaching, and gender and teacher stress.

A group of suburban/rural general and special education teachers (n = 260) responded to an electronic survey. The survey was designed to measure the prevalence of an under researched area of compassion fatigue and compassion satisfaction among teachers working in suburban/rural public schools. The current study hypothesized that the relationship among compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, demographic variables, and teacher stress factors (time management, discipline, motivation, professional distress, and professional investment) would correlate with an increase in compassion fatigue (burnout and secondary traumatic stress) for general and special education teachers working in suburban/rural public schools; furthermore, it predicted a positive correlation among burnout, compassion fatigue, and compassion satisfaction. Findings indicate that both burnout and compassion fatigue have a negative impact on general education or special education teachers (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Koenig, Rodger, & Specht, 2018; Kokkinos, 2007). The results also indicate a positive correlation between compassion fatigue and teacher burnout, which are negatively related to compassion satisfaction. Implications and future research are discussed.

Teaching is considered to be one of the most stressful occupations (Johnson et al., 2005). Not only is the profession highly stressful, it has the highest degree of career turnover of any profession (Ingersoll, 2001). Consistent stress can lead to burnout of the profession. McCarthy et al. (2009) noted that teacher burnout can be a result of inappropriate coping resources. The purpose of this study was to investigate the sources of stress, coping strategies, and learned coping strategies among expert elementary teachers. The sources of stress and coping strategies were examined using the Social Ecological Model which allowed for sources and coping strategies to be viewed from multiple levels: intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community, and public policy. There were 7 expert elementary teachers who participated in this study. Data collection included interviews, observations, and documents. The data revealed 14 sources of stress. Similarities and differences existed across the teaching positions regarding their sources of stress at the 5 ecological levels. For example, 2 gifted teachers and 1 special education teacher reported a lack of knowledge/training as a source of stress classified at the intrapersonal level, and all 7 teachers reported negative student behaviors as a source of stress classified at the interpersonal level. The 3 most common coping strategies included creating a support network, adapting to the situation, and creating a home-like environment. The majority of the teachers learned their coping strategies from personal experiences and people and some learned strategies from professional development programs.

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The current study examines predictors and outcomes of teacher stress, with the goal of creating a theoretical model depicting relations between teacher stress, self-efficacy, and use of emotion regulation strategies (e.g., cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, and behavioral regulation). Further, a range of additional school and teacher-related variables were examined including administrative support, school connectedness, teaching experience, student risk, perceived control, and challenge appraisal. Data were collected from two unique samples. First, 380 teachers participated in a pilot study to provide a preliminary understanding of relations among constructs and shed light on methodological concerns (e.g., need for increased participant recruitment). A longitudinal study was then conducted to understand relations among variables across the school year. Nearly 600 teachers from ten states completed the survey in the fall, winter, and spring of the 2018-2019 school year. Data indicated a relatively well-fitting model. Specifically, teachers who reported greater stress in the fall indicated lower self-efficacy in the spring. In addition, teachers with greater teaching experience and perceived control reported stronger teaching efficacy, whereas teachers who reported more administrative support, school connectedness, and perceived control displayed lower stress levels. A chi-square difference test was then used to examine whether use of emotion regulation strategies moderated the relation between stress and efficacy, within the context of the larger hypothesized model. Unexpectedly, emotion regulation strategies did not moderate this relation; however, when examined individually, each of the three-emotion regulation strategies was associated with stress and efficacy. That is, teachers who were more likely to use cognitive reappraisal and behavioral regulation strategies reported lower stress and greater efficacy. In contrast, expressive suppression was correlated with increased stress and poorer efficacy. Implications regarding using findings to support teachers are discussed. / School Psychology