This study aims to discuss equivalence and non-equivalence in some selected areas of English and Chinese lexis and their impact upon teaching, learning and translating. Attempts have been made to state the causes of lexical equivalence and non-equivalence and raise and solve some difficulties and problems arising particularly from nonequivalent lexemes between English and Chinese. As a subdiscipline of linguistics, contrastive linguistics is concerned with the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine the differences and similarities between them. Based on a practical aim this study tries to provide a model for the comparison and determine how and which lexemes are comparable so as to explore the notion of equivalence and non-equivalence. It is hoped to provide as much information as is possible in a limited study of this kind on lexical comparison between the two languages. It compares differences with examples, analyses some of the problems arising from the errors made by the Chinese students, and analyses their causes in the areas of noun, verb, preposition, compound lexemes, reduplicative words and phrases, negation, polysemy, idiomatic expressions and lexemes derived directly from the cultural background. Finally some suggestions and considerations are made for those who might have responsibility for designing courses to train interpreters, translators or teachers.

The study consists of five chapters. The first chapter gives a brief description of how English as a foreign language is taught in Indonesia and the need to improve the social competence of Indonesian speakers of English so that they will be regarded as competent speakers in social interaction. Language competence, including the notion of linguistic competence, together with the notions of communicative competence and social competence, is discussed in the second chapter, since it underlies the language learner's knowledge and ability to create and maintain a harmonious atmosphere in social interaction. Furthermore, the theory of communicative competence will include competency in sociocultural rules of use which will specify the ways in which utterances are produced and understood appropriately with respect to the components of communicative events outlined by Hymes. Speech act theory, particularly as it relates to complimenting behaviour is discussed. Chapter three reviews research on complimenting behaviour and considers some possible reasons why Indonesians do not pay as many compliments as Australians do. Ways of perceiving face - threatening acts and politeness are related to different cultures with different social values because of their different traditions, experience, ways of development and ways of thinking. Developing from these considerations of theory and research, the fourth chapter describes the study project which deals with what counts as a compliment in Indonesian and Australian English, what to compliment about and how people compliment as well as how people accept and respond to compliments. Analysis of some problems caused by lack of awareness of the differences between cultures and the effects of applying ones own strategy in complimenting behaviour, leading to misunderstanding, are also discussed. In the final chapter, the results of the project suggest what Indonesian learners of English need to be taught to help students develop social competence in complimenting behaviour. Suggestions for improving the social competence of Indonesian speakers of English are made.

Mastering a new language does not only consist of the ability to master its system of form but also the ability to use its linguistic units appropriately. This is because languages differ from one another not only in their systems of phonology, syntax and lexicon but also in their speakers' manners of patterning their discourse and realizing speech acts. Greeting and addressing people are, to varying extents, formulaic, culture-specific and routinized in different languages, including Vietnamese and English. The factors that govern the way one person greets and addresses another varies across languages and speech communities. The selection of one linguistic form over another in greeting and addressing someone largely depends on Speaker-Hearer relative power paradigm, the context of interaction and other social factors. Greetings and address terms by themselves do not carry much referential meaning but accomplish pragmatic functions. Failure to use them appropriately may result in communication breakdown or unwanted hostility, particularly in cross-cultural interactions. Since communication is meaning-based, conventional, appropriate, interactional and structured (Richards,1983: 242 ff), speakers of a foreign language must take into account these elements if they wish to communicate successfully in the target language. This study investigates the patterning of greeting and address terms in Vietnamese and in English, identifying similarities and differences between them. The factors that govern the way speakers choose to greet and address are examined.

Until recently, English teaching in Japan focused on giving much grammatical knowledge to students, and paid little attention to communicative competence, 'competence as to when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner' (Hymes 1971: 277). However, nowadays, the importance of communicating with foreign people for mutual understanding is often pointed out, and communicative competence is gradually receiving more attention in English teaching in Japan. Grammatical knowledge is not sufficient for making students communicate well, and in addition to grammatical knowledge, the knowledge of appropriate use of the language is necessary for effective communication. Furthermore, as a part of communicative competence, 'social competence', the knowledge and ability to create and maintain a harmonious atmosphere in social interaction, should be given more attention in order to allow students to communicate with English speaking people harmoniously and effectively. Although a number of teachers have noticed the importance of communicative and social competence, such competence is not taught sufficiently in Japan. One reason for this is that, with few opportunities to communicate with native speakers of English in Japan, teachers themselves do not know well the communication patterns of English in actual situations. To develop students' communicative competence, Japanese teachers of English need to know the cultural patterns in English, and to see what kind of problems could occur for Japanese students. It is intended that this field study will contribute a small part to the growing understanding of the cultural patterns in English and Japanese. Before considering the possible problems especially for Japanese learners of English, three possible causal factors of communication problems for non-native speakers are discussed: (1) lack of linguistic competence (2) transfer of native cultural patterns (3) false stereotyping. As a basis for considering the problems in terms of politeness strategies, in particular, Brown and Levinson (1978)'s 'face theory' is introduced, and some characteristics of Japanese cultural patterns which may cause some politeness problems are discussed. Based on the discussion, some hypotheses are built up about Australian and Japanese communication patterns, and an investigation has been conducted, focusing on two request situations: (1) asking a lecturer to lend a book (2) asking a friend to lend a book. Four Australian native speakers of English and four native speakers of Japanese were asked to role-play in each situation, and their results were compared with each other. These results were also analyzed in comparison with the results of four Japanese speakers of English and four Australian speakers of Japanese. Although this is a preliminary study and has some limitations in the investigation, the results show that, although politeness is a universal phenomenon, it is expressed differently in English and Japanese, and they indicate some possible problems in politeness strategies for Japanese speakers of English and for Australian speakers of Japanese. As to the implications of the results for English teaching in Japan, three points can be considered: (1) the need to make students aware of the cultural patterns of English (2) the need to teach students sufficient variety of expressions (3) the need to give students enough practice. In terms of these points, some weaknesses in English teaching in Japan are discussed. For example, teachers do not have enough knowledge of communication patterns in English, materials used in class do not give enough information about the target culture and actual use of English by native speakers, and the amount of time spent on English in the school curriculum and the number of students in one class cannot be considered desirable for the purpose of giving enough practice to each student. These problems are not easy to solve, but it is possible to find ways to improve the situation. In the final chapter, some practical, though tentative, suggestions are made in the hope that English teaching in Japan will be improved to help students to communicate well with people in different cultures.

This study investigated how new language is introduced to learners of English in Vietnam in terms of textbooks and teachers' presentation. The data sources for this study were from (1) an analysis of the two types of English textbooks being used in Vietnam: those written by native speakers of English and those written by Vietnamese authors, (2) an analysis of class-visit reports of 176 periods of English classes in Hue, and (3) an analysis of 57 questionnaires answered by two groups of Vietnamese teachers of English: 39 high school teachers and 18 tertiary teachers. Results from the study indicated that: -In general, the textbooks of both types fail to introduce the sociolinguistic aspects of the target language to the learners: the textbooks written by native speakers of English are very culture-specific. The contexts of situation in these textbooks in most cases are too implicit for both the teachers and the learners. The explanation of most cultural aspects in the textbooks is either not sufficient or not provided. On the other hand, the English cultural aspects introduced in the textbooks written by Vietnamese authors are biased. - Although most teachers have indicated their awareness of the importance of both cultural and linguistic aspects of new language, actual records of their presentation methods revealed more emphasis on the latter, that is the linguistic features. For the teaching of English to the Vietnamese learners, the results of this study lead to rejection of the idea of presenting new language without reference to the target culture as well as the idea of presenting new language removed from the context of situation. The results suggest the need for adaptation and supplementation of textbooks, and the inclusion of context of situation into the teacher's presentation of new language.

This field study report covers four major areas : 1. Error analysis in language teaching and learning and its procedures 2. The relevance of error analysis to the teaching of English as a foreign language in the Vietnamese situation 3. Analysis of errors made by Vietnamese speakers 4. The use of error analysis in teaching English to Vietnamese speakers. Error analysis can be a useful adjunct to second language teaching, since it serves two related but distinct functions : the one, practical and applied in everyday teaching, and the other, theoretical, leading to a better understanding of the second language learning acquisition process. This study emphasizes the practical uses of error analysis in teaching and correction techniques, materials development and syllabus design. It is hoped that error analysis will make some contribution to the teaching of English as a foreign language to Vietnamese speakers, whose language is quite different from English and whose culture is far from being similar to that of English native speakers. This study is aimed at helping Vietnamese teachers of English to change their attitude to students' errors and see them in a more positive way, rather than as signs of failure on the students' part. It is suggested that a teacher of English must be able to recognize errors when they occur, to form some idea of the kind of error made and also why they occur. Finally, he must then be able to draw, from the analysis thus made, some conclusions as to what and how he should teach.

The English language is now widely used in Vietnam. Consequently, the teaching and learning of English has become more significant , but, on the other hand, teaching methodologies, in Vietnam , still reflect those used in the past to teach other foreign languages. Vietnamese English teachers also experience difficulty coping with the many new problems which they now face. One of these difficulties is the teaching of English vocabulary. In order to develop an understanding of how best English vocabulary might be taught in the Vietnamese setting , this study identifies a particular group of students: Vietnamese tertiary students attending the Hanoi Foreign Languages Teachers' College, and then explores ways how teachers might introduce the teaching of English vocabulary, both to these students, and to the subjects the students will finally teach themselves. In order to prepare for an outline of how to carry out this teaching role, the study investigates the various problems associated with defining : the word; the types of meaning conveyed by the word; the relationship of phonology, syntax and semantics to the word, and other related matters . The study also looks at the problems which Vietnamese students have with learning English vocabulary. In this context a comparison is made of English and Vietnamese lexical and related systems. Subsequently, the study considers the different types of foreign language methods which have and are being used, with particular reference to how they were used to teach vocabulary. Finally, the study considers questions of the need to select appropriate vocabulary for the targetted students and details how teachers might effectively teach vocabulary.

This Study considers some of the problems and solutions to the needs of Vietnamese tertiary students with respect to writing in English in the University setting. The Study identifies that writing English as a foreign language has been and continues to be a f u n d a mental difficulty for Vietnamese tertiary students. Consequently, in order to understand the difficulty and the needs of such students, this Study enters into a consideration of the language and learning needs of the target population and describes the teaching strategy and syllabus content necessary to assist such students to function in English writing more adequately. In order to realise these aims, the Study reviews the relevant literature with respect to: (i) the development of the theory of the concept of writing in a foreign language , and (ii) the teaching of different foreign language teaching methods in the twentieth century. Finally , details of syllabus design and suggested techniques are presented in Appendices 1 and 2 respectively.

This study aims at comparing English and Vietnamese cohesion with the hope that it may contribute to the teaching and learning of English in Vietnam. It is hoped that the results of the study may help the teacher and student to become more aware of cohesive devices in English texts and thus make better use of them in the teaching and learning of the English language. The study reveals that the two languages have several similar features in cohesion. It also points out the differences of cohesion in texts of the two languages. The first chapter is an introductory part in which background to the study, the aim of the study, the source of information, and the objectives and content of the study are presented. Chapter 2 deals with the theoretical background related to the study. Concepts such as text and cohesion are presented. Chapter 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 discuss the five cohesive relations in English and Vietnamese; that is. reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. In chapter 8. a comparison of English and Vietnamese cohesion based on the analysis in chapters 3. 4. 5, 6 and 7 is made. As well as this, it looks at common errors in the use of cohesive devices made in the English writing of Vietnamese students at the University of Canberra. In the last section, the conclusion, the author tries to offer some implications based on the results of the previous sections and on the author's experience of teaching and learning foreign languages. It is hoped that the implications may be of significance to Vietnamese teachers and students of English. And furthermore, that the analysis of cohesion in Vietnamese may be beneficial to foreign students learning Vietnamese as a foreign language.

A newly emerging, developing country has many high priority areas. Many of these high priority areas are related to the educational system. Education is viewed by many political leaders (and also by citizens rich and poor) as a 'Golden Key' which will unlock doors labelled with words such as 'Development', 'Progress', 'Success', and 'the English Language'. The English Language, a modern technical, trade and diplomatic language, is one of the avenues of communication which may enhance development within Vietnam. At the present moment, foreign language teaching and especially Teaching English as a Foreign Language and Teaching English for Special/Specific purposes, are given high priority ratings by those who plan the development stages for Vietnam. It is also recognized that EFL and ESP teaching can and should be improved. Australia is assisting this process of improvement by supporting an assistance programme. Twenty two teachers from tertiary language centres have been studying Teaching English as a Foreign Language at the Canberra College of Advanced Education. This writer is one of these students. One of the requirements for the Master's Degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language is an extended Field Study in a specific area. This writer selected 'Aural Comprehension'. In this Field Study, the writer has explored the past and present position of teaching ' Aural Comprehension' in Vietnam. The writer has identified several significant problem areas and has suggested alternative options which may improve the teaching and the learning in this area.