Plant carbon isotopes were used to track assimilation of riparian resources by small mammals. Voles and shrews derived significant portions of their carbon from riparian vegetation. Deer and harvest mice were abundant in riparian habitat but assimilated little riparian vegetation indicating that the riparian corridor provided resources other than food. This is first use of stable carbon isotopes to trace riparian resources into a vertebrate community. Conifer encroachment in sagebrush ecosystems negatively affects many wildlife populations. Conifer removal is recommended across millions of hectares in the Great Basin. However the effects of conifer encroachment and conifer removal are unknown for most wildlife species. We show that the consequences of conifer encroachment, a press impact, far outweigh the pulse impact of sagebrush restoration, on small mammal diversity. Lack of demographic data limit the development of effective management, conservation and recovery goals for rattlesnakes. We used a long-term dataset and capture mark recapture models to quantify demography of four rattlesnake populations. Mean population growth indicated an overall stable population across the study, with two of the four sites declining. Survival overwhelmingly contributed to population growth relative to recruitment. No small mammals drank stream water even during periods of environmentally high water stress and high aridity, extension of the linear regression equation for small mammal body water towards the meteoric waterline, captures stream water, the weighted mean average for regional meteoric waters. Similar regression of fossilized small mammal tissues would also capture local meteoric waters. Even in arid regions, small mammal fossils are a suitable proxy for climate reconstructions. In the Great Basin, snowmelt overwhelmingly contributes to local precipitation, plant production, and stream flows. Snowmelt supports riparian and upland plants, and small mammals. Rattlesnakes prey primarily on small mammals, indirectly depending on snow melt for survival and reproduction. Climate models and rattlesnake emergence strongly indicate an earlier onset of spring and reduced ratio of snow to rain. Declining snowpack will have major impacts on biodiversity and management such as riparian vegetation, native plant restoration, trophic interactions, and ecological goods and services.

The Golden Throne Quadrangle is located within Capitol Reef National Park, south-central Utah. Geologic mapping of this 1:24,000 scale 7.5 minute quadrangle began in 2003 as the National Parks Service desired to have geologic maps at this scale produced within the park. Stratigraphically, ten bedrock formations and ten Quaternary deposits are exposed within the Golden Throne Quadrangle. Geologic formations range in age from Permian to Jurassic. This map contains details not included on previous geologic maps including; the members of the Carmel, Chinle, and Moenkopi Formations. Additionally, the Page Sandstone is herein mapped as an independent unit. Structurally the Golden Throne Quadrangle encompasses most of the southern quarter of the Miners Mountain uplift. The crest of this southwest verging uplift is cut by the left-lateral strike-slip Teasdale Fault zone. Preparation of a cross-section through the axis of the uplift within the quadrangle has not permitted the use of usual faulting and folding mechanisms (i.e. fault-bend folds and fault-propagation folds) for the creation of the uplift. Two structural models can account for the geometries observed in the field. The first model is a high angle reverse basement fault; the second model is a fold over an inverted basin. The Jurassic Page Sandstone, in the Golden Throne Quadrangle, is composed of the Harris Wash and Thousand Pockets Members, which are divided by the Judd Hollow Tongue, a member of the overlying Carmel Formation It represents an erg deposit and is primarily composed of eolian sandstone. Study of the formation within the Golden Throne Quadrangle helped in the understanding of its local characteristics. Previous research has helped to develop a regional stratigraphic framework for the Page Sandstone. This study cannot be easily incorporated into the regional framework of previous studies. In order to fully understand the sedimentology of the Page Sandstone additional research will need to be accomplished.

The 52,830-acre Mammoth Cave National Park, located in the karst region of south-central Kentucky, was formally established in July of 1941, culminating nearly three decades of park creation that displaced several thousand residents of the region. This thesis sampled residents using the 1920 manuscript census for the United States Census of Population and Housing and tracked their migration destinations using the 1930 and 1940 manuscript censuses. Migration patterns for the entire sample, as well as by race and homeownership status, were identified through mapping. Out-migrants generally chose locations north, west, and east of the proposed park area, noticeably neglecting the Deep South. Statistical analyses proved significant differences between proportions of Black out-migrants and White out-migrants moving to urban areas, as well as those of homeowners and renters who were not successfully tracked during analysis. The research underlines unintended consequences of the forced out-migration from the proposed Mammoth Cave National Park and several factors that contributed to it. In the process, the thesis fills a gap in research on Mammoth Cave National Park and sheds light on an important aspect of Kentucky’s history.

The aim of this thesis was to prepare, implement and evaluate an excursion as one of the organization forms of fieldtrips for lower secondary pupils from schools in Znojmo benefiting from the natural site of the National Park Podyjí, in specific the location called Kraví hora. In this case, it is a botanical the med field trip. The theoretical part of the thesis deals with general characteristics of the National Park Podyjí from various nature views highlighting its specially protected areas. This is followed by a description of specific field trip aspects and the most frequently used teaching methods together. The practical part contains, among other things, methodological instructions for teachers and pupils as well as didactic materials (worksheets, didactic test), included in the appendix. Questionnaire surveys for pupils and teachers are part of the last empirical chapter. The aim of the questionnaire was to record and evaluate thoughts, feelings and attitudes of pupils from the lower secondary school to the specific field trip, its implementation and overall organization. The aim of subsequently submitted didactic tests was to observe and reveal the effectiveness of the field trip teaching. The aim of the questionnaire, given to teachers, was to monitor their standpoints in relation to...

Diese Arbeit untersucht die systematische Verbreitung der Brutpflege bei südostasiatischen Buckelzirpen (Homoptera: Membracidae) sowie verhaltensökologische Aspekte dieses Verhaltens bei Pyrgauchenia tristaniopsis. Ergänzend dazu wurden Aspekte der Taxonomie, Lebensgeschichte, Reproduktionsbiologie und Morphometrie dieser Art untersucht, deren Kenntnis für die Interpretation des Brutpflegeverhaltens erforderlich waren. Die Ergebnisse (1) widersprechen der starken Version der Semelparitie-Hypothese (ein Fortpflanzungsereignis pro Fortpflanzungsperiode als Voraussetzung für Brutpflege bei Insekten), und sie zeigen, dass (2) Brutpflege bei altweltlichen Centrotinae - entgegen früherer Vermutungen - keine Ausnahme ist. Außerdem konnten erstmals einige grundlegende Aspekte der Biologie eines südostasiatischen Vertreters der Familie Membracidae geklärt werden. Aufsammlungen in der bodennahen Vegetation wurden in 16 Untersuchungsgebieten in West-Malaysia und Sabah (Borneo) von 1996-1998 durchgeführt. Weibliche Brutfürsorge in Form von Gelegebewachung wurde bei 11 Arten aus folgenden Gattungen gefunden: Pyrgauchenia, Pyrgonota, Hybandoides, Gigantorhabdus (Hypsaucheniini), Centrochares (Centrocharesini), Ebhul (Ebhuloidesini). Larven dieser Arten lebten in Aggregationen zusammen. Drei Arten werden neu beschrieben (Pyrgauchenia biuni, P. pendleburyi, P. tristaniopsis). Zwei nominelle Arten (P. angulata Funkhouser und P. brunnea Funkhouser) sind Junior-Synonyme von P. colorata Distant. Die Arbeiten zu Pyrgauchenia tristaniopsis fanden im unteren Montanregenwald des Kinabalu Nationalparks (Borneo) statt. Diese Art wurde nur dort gefunden (zwischen 1350 m und 1650 m ü. NN), und sie war polyphag (alle Entwicklungsstadien auf 11 Pflanzenarten aus 8 Familien). Es gab fünf Larvenstadien, deren Entwicklungszeit zusammen 63-83 Tage betrug (Embryonalentwicklung: 22 Tage). Larven lebten aggregierend und wurden von Ameisen besucht (insgesamt 4 Morphospecies). Es gab Hinweise, dass frisch gehäutete Imagines noch etwa 10 Tage in der Aggregation verblieben. Spätestens 5 bzw. 10 Tage nach der Imaginalhäutung waren Weibchen bzw. Männchen zu einer Erstkopulation bereit. Bei der Paarung kletterte das Männchen nach der Kontaktaufnahme auf das Weibchen und blieb dort im Median 138 Sekunden sitzen (Präkopula), worauf eine im Median 116-minütige Kopulation folgen konnte. Während der Präkopula sandte das Männchen Vibrationssignale aus. Die Art war promiskuitiv, und manche Weibchen paarten sich während der Gelegebewachung. Das Geschlechterverhältnis war zum Zeitpunkt der Imaginalhäutung ausgeglichen. Die Eimortalität aufgrund einer Kohortenanalyse betrug 35 Prozent. Prädatoren der Larven und Imagines waren besonders Springspinnen (Salticidae). Die Eier wurden von Brachygrammatella sp. (Trichogrammatidae) parasitiert. Eier wurden als Gelege ins Gewebe von Wirtspflanzenzweigen gelegt (Unterseite). Die Anzahl Eier pro Gelege (etwa 57) nahm mit der Bewachungsdauer des Weibchens zu. Bevorzugungen von Gelegepositionen ober- oder unterhalb bereits vorhandener Gelege waren nicht festzustellen. Im Median wurden 3-4 (1998er, 1997er Zensus) Gelege zusammen auf einem Zweig gefunden. Bei einem Wiederfangversuch legte mindestens die Hälfte aller Weibchen während ihres Lebens mindestens zwei Gelege. Zwischen Verlassen des ersten Geleges (auf dem ein Weibchen gefunden wurde) und der Oviposition ihres Folgegeleges vergingen im Median 5 Tage. Folgegelege wurden meist auf derselben Wirtspflanze wie das erste Gelege abgelegt. Der Fettkörper vergrößerte sich wieder nach der Oviposition, aber noch während der Bewachung des aktuellen Geleges. Weibchen saßen 26-28 Tage lang (nach Beginn der Oviposition) auf ihrem Gelege, d.h. bis zum 5.-8. Tag nach Schlupfbeginn der Larven (die Larven schlüpften sukzessiv, erst 9 Tage nach Schlupfbeginn waren die meisten LI geschlüpft). Weibchen kehrten nach experimenteller Vertreibung vom Gelege auf dieses zurück. In Wahlversuchen wurde aber das eigene Gelege gegenüber einem fremden nicht präferiert. Weibchen wichen bei Störungen stets zur Seite aus und begannen ihre Suche immer mit Seitwärtsbewegungen. Experimentell herbeigeführter Kontakt mit dem Eiparasitoid Brachygrammatella sp. genügte, um die Beinabwehr bewachender Weibchen zu erhöhen. Die Häufigkeit von Beinbewegungen war nicht nur vom Vorhandensein eines Geleges, sondern auch von der Tageszeit abhängig. Gelegebewachung förderte das Überleben der Eier: Die Eimortalität stieg mit experimenteller Verkürzung der weiblichen Bewachungsdauer an (unabhängig von der Gelegegröße). Gelegebewachung verzögerte die Ablage von Folgegelegen, wie durch experimentelles Verkürzen der Bewachungsdauer aktuell bewachter Gelege gezeigt wurde. Abgebrochene pronotale Dorsaldornen minderten nicht die Paarungswahrscheinlichkeit: Die Häufigkeit kopulierender Männchen und Weibchen mit abgebrochenem Dorn wich nicht von ihrer jeweiligen Häufigkeit in der Population ab. Bei 52 Prozent aller Gelege bewachenden Weibchen war der Dorsaldorn abgebrochen. Weibchen waren länger und schwerer als Männchen, und einige pronotale Merkmale (z.B. der Caudaldorn) waren ebenfalls bei den Weibchen länger. Dorsaldorn und Distallobus waren dagegen bei Männchen länger, und zwar bei gleicher Körpergröße. Geschwister ähnelten sich besonders hinsichtlich Gewicht sowie Körper- und Dorsaldornlänge, was durch große Heritabilität, gleiche Umweltbedingungen und Inzucht erklärt werden könnte. / This study explores (i) the systematic distribution of maternal care in Southeast Asian treehoppers (Homoptera: Membracidae) and (ii) the behavioral ecology of maternal care in Pyrgauchenia tristaniopsis. In addition, its taxonomy and features of its life-history, reproductive biology and morphometry necessary for interpreting data on maternal care were studied. The results (1) do not support the strong version of the semelparity-hypothesis (one reproductive event per reproductive season is a precondition for maternal care in insects) and show (ii) that, contrary to previous suggestions, maternal care in Old World Centrotinae is no ecxeption. Also, basic biological features of a Southeast Asian species of the family Membracidae were studied for the first time. Vegetation was sampled from 1996-1998 in 16 rainforest plots in West-Malaysia and Sabah (Borneo). Maternal care (egg-guarding) was present in 11 species from the genera Pyrgauchenia, Pyrgonota, Hyandoides, Gigantorhabdus (Hypsaucheniini), Centrochares (Centrocharesini), and Ebhul (Ebhuloidesini). Their nymphs lived gregariously. Three new species are described (Pyrgauchenia biuni, P. pendleburyi, P. tristaniopsis). Two nominal species (P. angulata Funkhouser und P. brunnea Funkhouser) are placed as junior synonyms of P. colorata Distant. Pyrgauchenia tristaniopsis was studied in the lower montane forest of Kinabalu National Park (Borneo). This species was found only there (between 1350 m and 1650 m a.s.l.). It was polyphagous with all developmental stages occurring on 11 plant species from 8 families. There were 5 nymphal stages taking together 63-83 days to develop (22 days for development of eggs). Nymphs lived gregariously and were tended by ants (total of 4 morphospecies). Circumstantial evidence suggests that adults stayed in aggregations for about 10 days after ecdysis. After ecdysis, it took females and males not more than 5 and 10 days, respectively, to copulate for the first time. To initiate mating, a male settled on a female for 138 sec (median, precopula) and sometimes mated with her taking 116 minutes (median) for one copulation. The male produced vibrational signals while in precopula. P. tristaniopsis was promiscous with some females copulating while guarding eggs. At ecdysis, sex ratio was even. From a cohort analysis, egg-mortality was estimated to be 35 per cent. Salticid spiders were the most frequent predators on nymphs and adults. Eggs were parasitized by Brachygrammatella sp. (Trichogrammatidae). Eggs were placed in clutches into the tissue of host plant twigs. Egg numbers per clutch (about 57) increased with duration of maternal egg-guarding. Females were not found to prefer the part above or below an egg clutch for oviposition. As a mean, 3 and 4 (1998 and 1997, respectively) clutches occurred together on one twig. In a mark-recapture experiment, at least half the females produced at least two clutches during their lifetime. Oviposition of second clutches found with females started 5 days (mean) after leaving the first clutch found. Usually, "second" clutches were placed on the same host plant individual as was the "first". The females' fat bodies increased again after oviposition while guarding a clutch. After oviposition, mothers sat for 26-28 days on their egg clutch, i.e., 5-8 days after the onset of egg hatch (first-instar nymphs hatched successively with the majority of instars having hatched only 9 days after the first had hatched). Upon removal, females returned onto their clutches. In a choice experiment, however, females did not prefer their own egg clutch to that of conspecifics. When disturbed, guarding females always retreated sideways and started their relocation search with movements to the sides. Experimentally arranged contact with the egg parasitoid Brachygrammatella sp. sufficed to increase the frequency of leg-scraping by females. The frequency of leg scrapes depended on daytime and on whether females guarded eggs. Egg-guarding improved egg survival: egg mortality increased when the duration of female egg-guarding was shortened experimentally (independent of egg number per clutch). Egg-guarding postponed oviposition of a second clutch, as shown by experimentally shortening the time of egg-guarding of the present clutch. Breaking of the dorsal pronotal process did not reduce mating probability: the frequency of copulating males and females with broken processes equalled their frequency in the population. The dorsal process was broken off in 52 per cent of all egg-guarding females. Females were longer and heavier than males as were some pronotal characters, e.g., the posterior process. Males of the same body length, however, had longer dorsal processes and distal lobes than females. Siblings were similar in their weight, body length and length of dorsal process. This may be explained by large heritabilities, similar environments, and/or inbreeding.

With visitation to natural areas increasing, the appropriate management of these areas is important. There are a number of management tools available which endeavour to minimise environmental impacts of visitors. One such management tool is interpretation. Interpretation is widely used as a management tool because: it is perceived to be the most cost effective method; it is a light-handed approach and allows visitors the freedom of choice; and it enhances visitor experiences and satisfaction. However, the ability of interpretation to bring about a reduction in the impacts of visitors to natural areas, has rarely been quantified. This study was designed to determine the extent to which an interpretive program reduced the environmental impacts of visitors to national parks. Fieldwork was undertaken in Lamington National Park, where 41 guided walks were examined. To measure the actual behaviour or resulting impacts of visitors in a national park, three appropriate environmental indicators were chosen: shortcutting of corners, picking up litter already on the track, and noise levels. Five interpretive programs were created, each with a different combination of environmental interpretation, role modelling and verbal appeals. For the shortcutting results, the interpretive program with the combination of environmental interpretation, role modelling by the guide and verbal appeals from the guide, was always the most effective in reducing shortcutting. Visitors in this interpretive program were always, statistically, less likely to shortcut than visitors on all the other interpretive programs. The programs with only environmental interpretation or no environmental interpretation, were always least effective in reducing shortcutting. The interpretive programs with environment interpretation plus role modelling, or verbal appeals, were always in the middle of these extremes. They were more effective than having neither role modelling or verbal appeals, but less effective than having both. Results for the amount of litter picked up found that the inclusion of verbal appeals in an interpretive program was the only factor that influenced whether visitors picked up litter. In addition, there was no difference in the amount of litter picked up, by the interpretive program with environmental interpretation only, and the program with no environmental interpretation. Results for the noise levels of visitors, found that no interpretive program reduced the amount of shouting and talking loudly of visitors. Although not statistically significant, it did appear that there were lower proportions of shouting and talking loudly, following a verbal appeal and/or role modelling. Additionally, there was no influence of the interpretive program on the proportion of time visitors were talking, or quiet, during their walk. Overall, this research found that interpretation can be an effective management tool in reducing visitor impacts. Interpretation is most effective in reducing impacts when those impacts are specifically addressed through verbal appeals, combined with positive role modelling of appropriate behaviours. However, interpretation did not reduce all the impacts studied and therefore is not the solution to all problems. Implications of this study are that those using interpretation as a means of reducing visitor impacts, must ensure that they have a high standard of interpretation, which specifically addresses the impacts that need to be reduced. It also highlights the importance of the role of the guide, and that those employed should be well trained and competent in their position.

Populations of Dicranoloma billardierei (Brid) Par., D. dicarpum (Nees.) Par., D. menziesii (Tayl.) Par. and D. platycaulon (C. Muell) Dix, from two pockets of cool temperate rainforest within the Yarra Ranges National Park (Cement Creek and Myrtle Loop), were sampled for a period of two years to establish their reproductive biology. The population dynamics within quadrats of D. billardierei, D. menziesii and D. platycaulon at Cement Creek also was investigated over a two year period, through the seasonal recording of shoot loss and/or gain, The four species of Dicranoloma were dioicous and sexually dimorphic, with dwarf males epiphytic on the female plants. Antheridia were initiated before archegonia and required ca, 6 months to reach maturity, compared with 1 to 2 months for archegonia. More archegonia than antheridia occurred per inflorescence and were more variable Fertilization occurred during winter in D. billardierei and summer/ autumn in D. menziesii and D. platycaulon. The duration of the sporophyte cycle of D. menziesii was 12 months, shorter than that of D. billardierei and D. platycaulon which lasted for a period of 18 months to 2 years. In the latter two species an overlap of sporophyte generations occurred. This was particularly pronounced in D. billardierei as sporophytes remained in the swollen venter maturation stage for a period of 6 months. The duration of the sporophyte cycle could not be ascertained as few fruiting stems of D. dicarpum were found. All four species of Dicranoloma regenerated from fragments cultured in the laboratory, and only two of the species showed evidence of production of asexual propagules in the field. Dicranoloma dicarpum was found to produce gemmae, an observation which had not been recorded before, and most of the leaves on stems of D. platycaulon had detached subulas. Shoot loss was minimal in all four species, and when it did occur, (eg D. billardierei) it was attributed to disturbance by animals. Within quadrats there was an increase in shoot density which resulted from the development of innovation(s) and/or side branches rather than from the recruitment of new plants from spores or the regeneration of asexual propagules. The four species of Dicranoloma investigated were robust, perennial mosses and formed an important component of the bryophytes found within the study area. Dicranoloma menziesii was the predominant species establishing on a variety of substrata, particularly as an epiphyte on Nothofagus cunninghamii The other species were more selective in their choice of substratum. Dicranoloma platycaulon was found exclusively on the trunks of myrtle beech and D. billardierei on fallen logs and exposed roots. Dicranoloma dicarpum which was not common, grew as an epiphyte on myrtle beech and on rocks.

Stoats are introduced mammalian carnivores implicated in the decline of several of New Zealand�s endemic species. Most research into stoats in New Zealand has focused on beech forest habitat, especially in years of peak stoat abundance following heavy beech seedfall and peak cohorts of mice. In New Zealand, alpine grasslands occur above the altitudinal limit of beech forest (900-1000 m a.s.l.). Although previous research has shown stoats to be present there, little is known about the ecology of stoats in alpine grasslands. This research aimed to test whether alpine grasslands were a marginal habitat occupied by surplus stoats that had spilled over from beech forest populations, i.e. a sink habitat. The alternative is that alpine grasslands are a desirable habitat deliberately exploited by stoats. This question was answered using mark-recapture, radio-tracking, diet analysis and a food addition experiment. Another objective was to determine whether nest survival is higher in alpine grassland compared to beech forest and whether stoats are likely to be a frequent predator of ground nests in alpine grasslands relative to other introduced mammals that inhabit them. If nest survival is higher in alpine grassland then alpine grasslands may be a refuge from predation. However, if it is not then it is important for management to know the relative risk posed by stoats compared with other predators. An artificial nest experiment was used to answer these questions. This research was undertaken during two years of low to intermediate beech seedfall and therefore provided an opportunity to look at the ecology of stoats in a New Zealand National Park outside years of peak abundance. The principal study site for this research was the Borland Valley, Fiordland National Park. Compositional analysis showed that stoats in alpine grassland selected for it over adjacent beech forest. The range cores of these stoats were high up in alpine grassland away from the ecotone with beech forest. Stoats occurred at similar densities in alpine grasslands as they did in beech forest and observed survival was similar between the two habitats (with the exception of 2004 when it may have been higher in alpine grassland). The most frequent prey of stoats inhabiting beech forest were birds and mice. Although stoats in alpine grasslands also ate birds and mice their most frequent prey were ground weta and hare. Food addition appeared to cause diet switching but did not reduce the distances moved by stoats, suggesting that other factors may be more important in regulating their summer home range size in alpine grasslands. All of these factors lead to the conclusion that alpine grasslands in the Borland are not a marginal habitat for stoats, but may instead be a desirable one. Artificial nests had a higher probability of survival in alpine grassland compared to adjacent beech forest, but survival was too low to support the idea that alpine grasslands are a refuge. Stoats were the most frequent predator of artificial nests in both habitats, but 95 % confidence intervals overlapped the predation rate by possums, which was also high. These findings illustrate the need for a comprehensive landscape approach to stoat control in montane National Parks, for two reasons: 1) endemic biodiversity in alpine grasslands may be under threat from stoat predation, 2) alpine grasslands may act as a source for dispersing stoats that reinvade lowland stoat control areas. In the absence of heavy beech seedfall and peak mouse abundance, stoats occurred at densities of around 1 km⁻� in both habitats and there was recruitment into these populations. This raises the important question: What regulates the distribution and abundance of stoats in years of low beech seedfall and low mouse abundance? In these years birds, ground weta and hares may be as important as mice are in years of peak abundance following heavy beech seedfall.

Nature-based tourism and recreation is a growing phenomenon around the world. In Australia, nature-based tourism represents an important part of the tourism sector and is to a large extent dependent on protected areas such as World Heritage areas, marine parks and national parks. While tourism and recreation can benefit protected areas, some are under pressure from visitation and marketing should play a role in managing visitor demand. To this end, a number of authors have suggested demarketing as a management tool to address situations of excess visitor demand, however, research on demarketing in protected areas is limited. To address this research gap, this thesis examines the use of demarketing in Australian national parks that face excess visitor demand using a case study on the Blue Mountains National Park. The thesis investigates factors that contribute to high visitor demand for the park, the use of demarketing to manage demand and factors that influence when and how demarketing is applied. Demarketing is that aspect of marketing that deals with discouraging customers in general or a certain class of customers in particular on either a temporary or permanent basis. In protected areas specifically, demarketing is concerned with reducing visitor numbers in total or selectively and redistributing demand spatially or temporarily. Six factors that contribute to high visitor demand for the national park were identified including the attractiveness of the park, its proximity to Sydney and the fact that the park is a renowned destination with icon sites. It was established that no holistic demarketing strategy is currently employed in the park and that the demarketing measures that are applied are not consciously used as demarketing. The measures used in the Blue Mountains National Park were discussed according to their association with the marketing mix components (4 Ps). Demarketing measures related to �product� include limiting recreational activities by defining specific areas where they can be conducted, limiting the duration of activities and closures of sites or features in the park. The measures related to �place� are the use of a booking system, limiting visitor numbers and group sizes, commercial licensing and limiting signage. Measures related to �price� are not extensively used in the park. The promotional demarketing measures applied include stressing restrictions and appropriate environmental behaviour in promotional material and nonpromotion of certain areas or experiences in the park. Importantly, these demarketing measures are not employed across the whole park or for all user groups, but are used for certain experiences in specific contexts and circumstances. Three types of factors influence the use of demarketing in the Blue Mountains National Park: pragmatic considerations, resource considerations and stakeholder interests. Pragmatic considerations include the feasibility and effectiveness of certain demarketing measures, which are influenced by the specific context of the national park. Resource considerations relate to financial, human and temporal resources and the findings suggest that a lack of resources influences and at times inhibits the use of demarketing measures. It was also found that various stakeholders have a profound influence on the use of demarketing measures. The stakeholder groups have diverse interests and therefore influence the use of demarketing in different ways by supporting or impeding certain measures. Based on the findings and limitations of this study, recommendations for government and future research are made. These emphasise among others the need for more consistent and comprehensive collection of visitor information to tailor management actions more effectively. It is also suggested that a more conscious and holistic application of demarketing measures may help to manage visitor demand to parks proactively to ensure that the resource remains for future generations.

Internationally, the impacts of deer have been widely studied, but little work has been conducted in Australia. Sambar (Cervus unicolor Kerr) were introduced to Victoria in the 1860s from Sri Lanka, and have become established throughout eastern Victoria. This study is located in the Yarra Ranges National Park, 100 km north east of Melbourne. The park primarily consists of three protected water catchments that contribute approximately 50% to Melbourne’s water supply. This study was conducted from 2005 to 2008 in the Upper Yarra and O’Shannassy catchments. Large open areas covered by forbs and grasses periodically form adjacent to the water body of the Upper Yarra reservoir. Sambar are frequently observed at the largest of these areas known as The Flats. The impacts of sambar at this locality and in other areas of the catchments were investigated. / Faecal pellet transect surveys determined that sambar occupancy and density was greatest on open flats, lower on forest edges adjacent to open flats (< 250 m), and significantly less in other forested areas of the catchment. Observations of The Flats revealed that hinds were the main demographic class represented, with a mean group size of 39 individuals, and up to 70. This is the largest aggregation of sambar ever reported anywhere in the world, and equates to an approximate density of 200 km-2 at this site. / Selective exclosures effectively differentiated the offtake of forage by sambar from that of native herbivores. Sambar contributed to the majority of offtake at The Flats, and were able to obtain a substantial proportion of their daily food requirements from this source. A culling program began in the Yarra Ranges National Park in May 2008, to reduce the large numbers of deer in the park. The cull reduced the time spent by sambar on The Flats, as determined by faecal pellet accumulation plots, and significantly reduced faecal pellet load and forage offtake. / Sambar significantly decreased relative foliage cover of shiny nematolepis (Nematolepis wilsonii), a threatened understorey tree, through their antler rubbing activities. Thrashing of shiny nematolepis saplings also significantly decreased relative foliage cover, with sambar selecting saplings with a larger stem diameter from those available. Rubbed trees and thrashed saplings experienced damage to, on average, over half the stem circumference. / Selective exclosures allowed differentiation of sambar and native herbivore browsing on forest understoreys. Browsing by sambar in high densities prevented the vertical growth of plants in the understorey, with branches above 60 cm in height most commonly browsed. Plants in the understorey were more frequently and intensely browsed in areas of high sambar density. Three species were browsed to a significantly greater extent by sambar than native herbivores: hazel pomaderris (Pomaderris aspera), prickly tea-tree (Leptospermum continentale) and prickly bush-pea, (Pultenaea juniperina). Sambar significantly reduced plant biomass in forest understoreys where they occur in high densities. / The presence of large, open herb-rich areas drives the high local densities and associated impacts of sambar within the Yarra Ranges National Park. Future areas of research are identified and management recommendations are outlined. A sustained culling program appears to be the only practical option to reduce sambar density and impacts at this locality.