People experience the irritating tearing and burning sensation of lachrymatory factor (LF, propanthial S-oxide) when cutting or chopping onion bulbs. LF is produced by lachrymatory factor synthase (LFS) specifically from 1-propenyl sulfenic acid, a breakdown product of trans-1-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide (1-PRENCSO) by alliinase. This thesis describes strategies to produce a tearless onion by using RNA interference (RNAi) silencing. To determine whether a gene silencing cassette can silence lfs gene transcripts from onion (Allium cepa L.), a crop recalcitrant to genetic transformation, a gene silencing assessment system was developed by using a model plant as a host for the gene of interest. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants transgenic for LFS enzyme activity from onion were first produced by introducing a CaMV 35S-onion-lfs gene construct. These plants were then subjected to a second transformation with an RNAi construct directed against the lfs gene sequence. LFS enzyme activity assay showed that the transgenic plants, containing both the lfs gene and the RNAi construct, had significantly reduced LFS activity. This observation was supported by Western analysis for the LFS protein and further validated by quantitative RT-PCR analysis that demonstrated a significant reduction in the lfs transcript level in the dual transformants. This work demonstrated that the RNAi construct is a suitable candidate for the development of a tearless onion. This model plant RNAi system has wide reaching applications for assessment and targeting of plant secondary pathway genes, from poorly studied or recalcitrant plant species, that are important in pharmacological, food and process industries. The functional RNAi vector identified in the model system was transformed into onion. Endogenous lfs transcript levels were successfully reduced by up to 43-fold in six transgenic lines. In consequence, LFS enzyme activity was decreased by up to 1573-fold and this observation was supported by Western analysis for the LFS protein. Furthermore, the production of the deterrent LF upon tissue disruption was reduced up to 67-fold. Subjective olfactory assessment of silenced lines indicated that the pungent odour given off by the leaf and bulb material was much reduced compared with that of non-transgenic counterparts, and that this was replaced by a sweeter milder onion odour. A novel colorimetric assay demonstrated that this silencing had shifted the 1-PRENCSO breakdown pathway so that by reducing LFS protein, more 1-propenyl sulfenic acid was converted into di-1-propenyl thiosulfinate. A consequence of the raised thiosulfinates levels was a marked increase in the downstream production of a non-enzymatically produced zwiebelane isomer that has never previously been identified, and other volatile compounds, di-1-propenyl disulfides and 2-mercapto-3,4-dimethyl-2,3-dihydrothiophenes, which had previously been reported either in small amounts or had not been detected in onions. These raised volatile sulfur compounds provide an explanation for the unique flavour notes of the LF reduced onion and are predicted to have health benefits akin to those found in garlic. These results demonstrated that silencing of LFS enzyme activity by introducing an RNAi construct directed against the lfs gene sequence simultaneously reduced levels of the deterrent LF and increased the desirable thiosulfinates in onions.

Les végétaux appartenant au genre Allium et notamment le poireau, Allium porrum, ont la caractéristique de produire des composés secondaires soufrés. A l'instar de nombreuses substances issues du métabolisme secondaire des plantes, ces composés soufrés semblent être impliqués dans les systèmes de défense naturelle des Allium. Les tests de toxicité réalisés sur différentes espèces d'insectes ont révélé que les substances volatiles soufrées émises par ces plantes, les thiosulfinates et leurs produits de dégradation, les disulfures et notamment le disulfure de diméthyle (DMDS) sont toxiques vis à vis de toutes les espèces testées. Le DMDS provoque la mort des insectes par un disfonctionnement mitochondrial via l'inhibition de la cytochrome oxydase conduisant à une forte diminution de la production d'ATP et de ce fait, à une perte de l'influx nerveux. Toutefois, les larves de la teigne du poireau, Acrolepiopsis assectella, lépidoptère spécialiste des Allium et notamment du poireau, sont nettement moins sensibles à ces substances soufrées que les autres espèces. Cet insecte a développé des mécanismes adaptatifs spécifiques mais pour l'instant inconnus lui conférant cette meilleure tolérance et donc la possibilité de se développer sur sa plante hôte riche en substances soufrées. Les composés secondaires soufrés produits de façon constitutive par les poireaux agissent très certainement dans la nature par des phénomènes d'anti-appétence, de répulsion et de toxicité et représentent alors un système de défense constitutive directe vis à vis des insectes non inféodés à ces plantes. Ce système de défense peut probablement expliquer pourquoi si peu d'espèces phytophages sont capables de se développer aux dépens du poireau.<br />Lorsqu'il est attaqué de façon importante par la teigne du poireau, le poireau met en place une réponse se traduisant par une augmentation de la production de composés soufrés non volatils pouvant aboutir à une émission plus importante de substances soufrées volatiles. Cette réponse du poireau induite par l'attaque des teignes a des répercussions sur le comportement et les capacités de développement du lépidoptère spécialiste et semble ainsi représenter pour la plante un système de défense directe induite. Les composés soufrés volatils émis par le poireau en ayant un rôle très important dans le comportement de recherche de l'hôte par Diadromus pulchellus, parasitoïde spécialiste des chrysalides de teignes du poireau pourraient être également impliqués dans un phénomène de défense indirecte de la plante.

This Project identified the relationships between storage conditions, dry matter losses (DMLs) caused by Fusarium species in cereal grains and mycotoxin contamination and assessed novel control strategies for post-harvest grain management including chemical control and ozone. F. graminearum, F. verticillioides and F. langsethiae were inoculated on wheat, maize and oats and stored under environmental conditions where marginal to optimum spoilage and mycotoxin contamination can occur. DMLs were calculated from the CO2 produced and were significantly correlated with deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FUMs) and T-2 and HT-2 toxins respectively. Mycotoxin levels in wheat and maize exceeded the EU legislative limits with 0.9-1% DMLs. Therefore, CO2 monitoring during storage can indicate the level of contamination in a stored batch. Using CO2 production data at different water activity (aw) and temperature conditions, the environmental regimes at which F. langsethiae can grow and contaminate oats with T-2 and HT-2 toxins were identified for the first time. Five acids were examined in vitro and little effect was observed on Fusarium growth, in the aqueous form, while the effect on mycotoxin production varied. Dissolved in ethanol, adipic, fumaric and ferulic acids inhibited fungal growth and controlled DON and FUMs, but T-2 toxin was stimulated by the ethanol. Two garlic essential oils, propyl-propylthiosulfinate (PTS) and propyl propylthiosulfonate (PTSO) were studied for the first time. In vitro, 200 ppm reduced fungal growth (50-100%) and mycotoxin production by >90%. The efficacy was species-dependent. In naturally contaminated oats of 0.93 aw stored for 20 days, 16 ppm PTSO reduced T-2 and HT-2 toxins by 66% and ochratoxin A (OTA) by 88%, while 200 ppm PTS reduced OTA by 95%. In wheat, 100 ppm PTS reduced DON and ZEA and 300 ppm PTS reduced fumonisins by 40-80%. PTSO:PTS (1:1) at 400 and 600 ppm was very effective against DON and ZEA in wheat of 0.92 aw. Ozone (O3) exposure at 200 ppm for 30 min delayed Fusarium spore germination on media of 0.98 aw and inhibited germination at 0.94 aw. O3 was more effective against fungal spores than mycelium and little effect was observed on growing cultures. In vitro, mycotoxin production after exposure depended on the stage of life of the fungi. O3 reduced fungal populations in grains. Mycotoxin production in wet grains treated with 100-200 ppm O3 for 60 min and stored for up to 30 days was reduced or completely inhibited, depending on the species and the exposure system. Simultaneous drying of the grain due to the O3 passage was observed.