The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a tier-2 combined oral narrative and expository language intervention on kindergarteners' narrative and expository skills in comparison to an alternate decoding intervention and no treatment control condition. This study included 54 kindergarten students. After being administered the PEARL Kindergarten Screener at the beginning of the school year, eight students were found as at-risk for future reading comprehension difficulty and were matched to nine students not-at-risk, and all assigned to a language treatment group. Additional students not-at-risk for future reading comprehension difficulty were randomly assigned to an alternate decoding treatment group (n = 9) and to a no treatment control group (n = 9). Narrative intervention took place for approximately four months biweekly for 15 minutes, then expository language intervention was provided for approximately two months biweekly for 15 minutes. Students across all conditions were administered narrative and expository measures at the conclusion of the study. Results indicated that the typically developing students had significantly higher narrative and expository outcomes when compared to the typically developing students in the alternate decoding treatment and no treatment condition. Additionally, we found that the at-risk students who received oral language intervention were able to catch up to their typically developing peers in both narrative and expository outcomes with a trajectory that suggested that they would eventually meet grade level narrative language benchmark expectations. Early oral language intervention is the first step in reducing the poor reading comprehension outcomes across the nation. By targeting oral language comprehension, even young kindergarten students can improve both decoding and comprehension, better preparing them for future academic success.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Elementary Education / Marjorie Hancock / A portion of the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004), Response to Intervention (RtI), aims to prevent unnecessary student placement in special education. The intent of RtI is to provide all students with effective classroom instruction first and afford low-performing students with increasingly intensive, individualized interventions (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Vaughn,2008). Although there is considerable information available in regard to the effectiveness of the multi-tiered model of the Response to Intervention approach to deliver intervention services to struggling readers (Speece & Walker, 2007), very little is known about implementing RtI in the schools (Allington, 2009). This qualitative, exploratory, collective case study was conducted during the fall/spring semesters of the 2009/2010 school year between November 16, 2009 and February 26, 2010. This study investigated how three kindergarten classroom teachers, located in two elementary schools, delivered Tier 2 literacy instruction to kindergarten struggling readers within the Response to Intervention model in the classroom setting. Multiple data sources were gathered from interviews with administrators and teachers, guided conversations with students, classroom observations and field notes, and documents/artifacts. Data were collected and analyzed during three phases of the study. This study’s findings established that in the new era of Response to Intervention (RtI), teachers were able to apply literacy instructional approaches and pedagogy based on their teaching philosophy to address the needs of at-risk struggling readers within the kindergarten classroom environment. However, data analysis revealed dissimilar perceptions of the three case study teachers regarding their roles and responsibilities teaching literacy within the Response to Intervention approach which influenced how they delivered Tier 2 intervention instruction. The three classroom teachers utilized the modeled, shared, and guided approaches to literacy instruction and provided lessons in phonemic awareness and phonics during Tier 2 small group literacy interventions. In addition, the data collection and analysis identified three pedagogies which occurred during Tier 2 instruction: 1) monitoring of learning; 2) encouraging and supportive learning environments; and 3) feedback and reinforcement. Data analysis also revealed the student participant benefits included positive attitudes towards reading, students’ perception of themselves as self-confident and motivated readers, development of an emerging love of reading, and enjoyment of practicing their reading skills in small groups.

Behavior during transitions in classrooms is an area in need of additional supports in order for teachers to effectively manage classrooms. Extended transition durations, particularly transition periods between one activity and another are related to problem behavior among children in educational settings. This study evaluated the use of acoustical feedback aimed to improve transition behaviors of elementary school students, using a multiple-baseline design across participants. Teachers were trained to implement the acoustical feedback procedure. Data on teacher treatment fidelity, student transition behavior (transition duration and problem behavior), generalization probes, and social validity were collected to examine the feasibility and potential efficacy of acoustical feedback. The results indicated that the participating teachers successfully implemented the acoustical feedback procedures with high levels or moderately high levels of fidelity and their implementation of the intervention was successful in reducing problem behavior and transition duration for all three participating children. Support for generalization was strong for two teachers and their students and minimal for one teacher and her student.

This study evaluated Social StoriesTM (SS) with three at-risk preschool children in a high- need public elementary school. Specifically, this study examined the use of a multimedia SS designed to decrease problem behavior and increase prosocial behavior. A multiple baseline design across participants with an ABC sequence was used to assess the impact of the standard SS and multimedia SS on the children's target behaviors. The results of the study indicated that the standard SS was successful in reducing problem behavior and increasing prosocial behavior for all three participating children. The results also indicated that the multimedia SS had positive effects on the children, further increasing prosocial behavior during intervention. Although the problem behavior did not further decrease when the multimedia SS was introduced, the low levels of problem behavior were maintained at a 3-week follow-up for all three children. All three children demonstrated maintenance of improved prosocial behavior during follow-up. Overall, the multimedia SS demonstrated high levels of social validity.

Effective interventions are imperative for students who are at-risk for academic failure. Response to Intervention (RTI), a service delivery framework, is gaining momentum in schools as it aims to provide effective and appropriate interventions of varying degrees. Frequently used in the form of a three-tier process, RTI addresses academic and behavioral deficits for students first at a school-wide level; next, at an individualized level; and finally, at a more intense individualized level. This study examined the effects of video self-modeling (VSM) as a Tier 2 RTI for two students in general education classrooms. Both students exhibited low rates of on-task behavior and were considered at-risk for academic failure. The first participant received intervention prior to his general education first grade math lesson. The second participant received intervention prior to his general education sixth grade writing lesson. The results of the study indicate that this method of intervention has potential. In spite of uncontrollable confounding variables, both participants' average on-task behavior minimally increased (by 6 and 3 percentage points respectively) over the course of intervention. Neither student was referred for Tier 3 interventions nor was classified as having a disability. Video self-modeling as a Tier 2 intervention may provide substantial instruction for students with learning deficits, thus reducing the number of individuals referred for special education services.

School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Support (SWPBIS) is an evidence- based application of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) to address and prevent problem behaviors from occurring, promote pro-social behaviors, and create a positive learning environment for all students. There are many secondary interventions that have been utilized within the framework of SWPBIS that have high success rates. However, the research conducted on the use of Check-In/Check-Out (CICO), a secondary intervention, has focused its attention more on its effectiveness in public elementary schools. There is a lack of research evaluating the effectiveness of CICO in alternative school settings. This study provides an extension to the literature by examining the effects of the CICO program with school-aged children residing in a mental health treatment facility. Using a concurrent multiple baseline across participants design, students were exposed to a CICO intervention strategy in which problem behaviors were targeted for reduction and academic engagement was targeted for acquisition. All three students showed substantial decreases in problem behavior and increases in academic engagement when the CICO intervention was in place.