Artificial tactile recognition systems can provide valuable information about the surroundings and would enable artificial systems like prostheses and robotics to protect themselves against damage. However, making the desired geometry of sensing elements in flexible and stretchable sensors is a problem to be addressed. To overcome these hurdles, 3D printing technology can introduce advantages such as ease of design and rapid prototyping of complex geometries for soft sensors. Here, we report a conductive, biocompatible and antimicrobial 3D printed electronic skin (e-skin) based on a combination of platinum-cured silicone inks alongside carbon nanofibers (CNF). We adapted and standardized 3D printing parameters to obtain consistent CNF-based structural patterns and geometries. We explored the influence of printing angles and infill density on the mechanical properties of the printed structure, and utilized them to build complex resistive sensors with conductivity values of up to 120 S m-1, stretchability of up to 1000%, and 1200% increased pressure sensitivity in comparison to bulk sensors. We investigated the biocompatibility and antibacterial action of our material, and developed relieved pigmented e-skin sensor parts that can be integrated into robotic limbs to measure touch and a wide range of human motions demonstrating its promising integration in smart robotic sensing.

The landscape of consumer electronics has drastically changed over the last decade. Technological advances have led to the development of portable media devices, such as the iPod, smart phones and laptops. This has been achieved primarily through miniaturisation and using materials such as Lithium and Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) to increase energy density in batteries and as transparent electrodes for light emitting displays respectively. However, ten years on there are now new consumer demands, which are dictating the direction of research and new products are under constant development. Graphene is a promising next-generation material that was discovered in 2004. It is composed of a two-dimensional lattice made only from carbon. The atoms are arranged in a two atom basis hexagonal crystal structure which forms a fundamental building block of all sp2 hybrid forms of carbon. The production of large area graphene has a high cost, due to the long growth times and the high temperatures required. This is relevant as graphene is not viable compared to other transparent conductors which are produced on industrial scales for a fraction of the cost of graphene growth. Furthermore, graphene has a high intrinsic resistivity (2KW/_) which is three orders of magnitude greater than the current industry standard ITO. This limits the size of the electrodes as there is dissipation of energy across the electrode leading to inefficiency. Furthermore a potential drop occurs across the electrode leading to a non-uniform light emission when the electrode is used in a light emitting display. I investigate alternative methods of large area graphene growth with the aim of reducing the manufacturing costs, while maintaining the quality required for graphene human interface devices. Building on this I develop new fabrication methods for the production of large-area graphene devices which are flexible and transparent and show the first all graphene touch sensor. Focusing on the reducing the high resistivity of graphene using FeCl3 intercalation, while maintaining high optical transmission, I show low resistivity achieved using this process for microscopic graphene flakes, large-area graphene grown on silicon carbide and large-area graphene grown by CVD. Furthermore, I explore the stability of FeCl3 intercalated graphene and a process to transfer a material to arbitrary flexible substrates.

Many electronic products of today utilize some form of touch technology. Looking at everything from smartphone screens to ticket vending machines, it is obvious that the number of applications is big and the demand is huge. Touch technologies generally require no force to use, which reduces mechanical wear-and-tear and thus increases their lifespan. In this thesis, a touch system was constructed to control RGB LEDs. The sensor surface was made from a white, semi-clear plastic, through which the LEDs’ light should be visible. Since the plastic both needed to transmit visible light and act as a touch surface, a problem arose: how do you construct a transparent touch sensor that can control RGB LEDs in a reliable way? Firstly, this thesis describes and discusses many of the different available touch technologies and their strengths and weaknesses. From this information, a specific sensor technology was chosen, from which a prototype of the transparent touch sensor was built. The sensor prototype was a capacitive sensor, made from a thin metallic mesh, placed on the back of the plastic surface. Using an embedded system, based on a differential capacitance touch IC and a microcontroller, the capacitance of the sensor was measured and converted into signals which controlled the LEDs. In order to ensure the sensor’s reliability, the environmental factors which affected the sensor had to be determined and handled. To do this, measurements were performed on the sensor to see how its capacitance changed with environmental changes. It was concluded that moisture, temperature and frequency had negligible effect on the sensor’s dielectric properties. However, it was discovered that proximity to ground greatly affected the sensor and that the sensor was significantly dependent on its enclosure and grounding. / Många av de elektronikprodukter som produceras idag använder någon form av touchteknik. Då den används i allt från skärmar på smartphones till biljettautomater är det tydligt att användningsområdena är många och att efterfrågan är stor. Touchtekniker kräver i regel ingen kraft för att användas, vilket minskar mekaniskt slitage och därför ökar dess livslängd. I detta arbete skulle en touchstyrning till en uppsättning RGB-lysdioder byggas. Problemet var att sensorytan skulle vara en vit, halvgenomskinlig plast, genom vilken lysdioderna skulle lysa. Eftersom plasten både skulle släppa igenom ljus och agera touchyta uppstod problemet: hur konstruerar man en genomskinlig touchsensor som kan styra RGBlysdioder på ett pålitligt sätt? Denna rapport inleds med att beskriva och diskutera många av de touchtekniker som finns idag samt vilka föroch nackdelar de har. Utifrån denna information valdes en specifik sensorteknik, varifrån en prototyp på den genomskinliga touchsensorn byggdes. Sensorprototypen var en kapacitiv sensor uppbyggd av ett tunt metallnät placerat bakom plastpanelen. Med ett inbyggt system, bestående av en integrerad touchkrets för differentiell kapacitansmätning och en mikrokontroller, mättes sensorns kapacitans och en styrning till lysdioderna implementerades. För att säkerställa sensorns pålitlighet var det viktigt att analysera vilka miljöfaktorer som påverkade sensorn och hur de kunde hanteras. Mätningar utfördes därför på sensorn för att se hur dess kapacitans förändrades med avseende på dessa. Det kunde konstateras att fukt, temperatur och frekvens hade försumbar påverkan på sensorns dielektrum. Däremot kunde det visas att närhet till jordplan påverkade sensorn avsevärt och att sensorns tillförlitlighet berodde signifikant på dess inkapsling och jordning.

Additive manufacturing has recently become an increasingly available, affordable, and versatile technology for industry and enthusiasts alike. One opportunity that this provides is using conductive filament to print electronic sensors and components. This thesis addresses some of the possibilities and limitations of using conductive filament for constructing electronic sensors and components. Using Protopasta Conductive polylactic acid filament, several components were printed and tested. Printed components include resistors, capacitors, strain gauges and touch sensors. To all components connector pad were added to create a uniform interface between filament and metal. Resistors were printed with varying geometry, ranging from lengths 12 mm to 60 mm and height 1 mm to 4 mm. Their resistances were measured and found to range from 250 Ω to 1600 Ω. Circular capacitors were printed with diameters, 2 cm, 3 cm and 4 cm respectively. However, the capacitors showed no capacitance during measurements, indicating that this material with its high resistivity is unsuitable for creating capacitors. Strain gauges and touch sensors were also constructed, showing that there is a potential for using this filament. The strain gauges had a resistance increase that depended heavily on geometry; straight components had a resistance increase up to 15 % for 40° angle bends, where as gauges with bends had close to zero increase. Two proof-of-concept prototypes of touch sensors were also constructed, showing that the material can be used for this purpose. Creating high quality prints with the filament proved difficult; it had a tendency of clogging the printer, printing unevenly, and showed poor layer adhesion. Primary future work is to improve the printing process. / Additiv tillverkning har de senaste decennierna alltmer blivit tillgängligt, billigare och mer mångsidigt, och kan nyttjas av industri och entusiaster. En möjlighet som uppkommit är att additiv tillverkning möjliggör konstruktion med konduktiva filament, för att printa exempelvis sensorer och elektriska komponenenter. Denna rapport behandlar möjligheter och begränsningar av att använda konduktivt filament för sensorer och elektriska komponenter. Med Protopasta Conductive PLA (PolyLactic Acid) filament har flera komponenter printats och testats. Printade komponenter inkluderar resistorer, kondensatorer, töjningsgivare och vidröringssensorer. Till alla komponent har tillagts kontaktytor för att skapa ett enhetligt gränssnitt mellan filament och metall. Resistorer har printats med varierande geometri, från längder mellan 12 mm och 60 mm till tjocklekar mellan 1 mm och 4 mm. Resistanserna mättes och låg mellan 250 Ω och 1600 Ω. Cirkulära kondensatorer printades med diametrarna 2 cm, 3 cm och 4 cm. Däremot visade kondensatorerna ingen kapacitans under mätningar, vilket indikerar att detta material med sin höga resistivitet är olämpligt för att skapa kondensatorer. Töjningsgivare och vidröringssensorer har också konstruerats. Töjningsgivaren har en resistans som beror kraftigt på geometrin; raka komponenter uppvisade en resistansökning på uppemot 15 % för 40° böjningar, medan töjningsgivare med öglor hade en resistansökning nära noll. Två prototyper av vidröringssensorer konstruerades och verifierades, vilket visar att materialet kan användas till detta syfte. Att få högkvalitativa utskrifter med filamentet visade sig vara svårt; filamentet tenderade till att täppa till skrivarens munstycke, ge ojämna utskrifter och uppvisade dålig fästning mellan lagren. Huvudsakligt framtida arbete är att förbättra utskriftsprocessen.