This study investigated the utility of using the constructs of transactive memory system and heedful interrelating to explain the causal mechanisms of resulting learning and attitudinal outcomes emerging from the promotive interaction which occurs under conditions of positive social interdependence. An experimental study with clarifying qualitative analyses was conducted with college students as participants. Two aspects were addressed: (a) to define the promotive interaction in quantitative and qualitative terms using heedful interrelating and transactive memory system and (b) to assess the role of the promotive interaction, defined by heedful interrelating and transactive memory system, in the relationship between social interdependence and both proximal learning-related attitudinal outcomes including task value and situational interest, as well as more distal behavioral learning-related outcomes including group and individual task performance and individual perceptions of group performance. There was no direct effect of social interdependence on any outcome of interest nor were the mediational roles of heedful interrelating and transactive memory system in the relationship between positive social interdependence and outcomes of interest (individual and group performance, situational interest, task value, and perceptions of performance) supported, further exploratory analyses revealed these constructs did have significant direct effects on various outcomes of interest. Heedful interrelating was positively predictive of participants' situational interest, task value, individual perceptions of group performance, and individual and group performance. Transactive memory system was also positively predictive of individual situational interest and task value and group performance while an unexpected negative direct effect was found for individual performance. Qualitative analyses focusing on selected groups were used to explore this unexpected impact of transactive memory system on individual learning. Ways in which future studies may build on quantitative and qualitative findings are discussed.

Transactive memory, the transmission and use of knowledge between two or more people, is an important construct to consider when studying work teams. This thesis reviews the literature on transactive memory systems (TMS) in order to summarize what is currently known about TMS and to identify gaps in the literature in need of further investigation. Past TMS research is reviewed according to the operational definitions, antecedents, team processes, outcomes, team performance, and boundary conditions. TMS is most frequently operationalized using Lewis' (2003) TMS scale. Research has focused on three types of antecedents: Communication, Team Characteristics, and Facilitation of TMS. Two common types of team processes found were coordination and team monitoring & backup behavior. Outcomes frequently focused on were team cognition, and team effectiveness. Team performance was ubiquitous in almost all the literature. Boundary conditions, however, varied considerably

Beaucoup d'organisations se sont appuyées sur la créativité pour dépasser leurs concurrents et le savoir sur la façon de soutenir la créativité est devenu critique. En règle générale, la créativité aurait pour origine les individus ou un groupe de personnes travaillant ensemble. Par conséquent, dans cette thèse, notre objectif est de fournir une meilleure compréhension de la façon de faciliter la créativité à la fois au niveau individuel et de l'équipe. Pour l'équipe, nous nous concentrerons sur la créativité de l'équipe virtuelle qui a été peu étudiée malgré l’intérêt de l’analyse. Les quatre articles de cette thèse visent à fournir une meilleure compréhension de la créativité et à en identifier les déterminants tant au niveau individuel que pour l’équipe virtuelle. Nous avons analysé la littérature sur la créativité individuelle pour améliorer la compréhension de la créativité des employés. Notre analyse suggère qu'il est plus efficace de tenir compte à la fois des facteurs individuels et contextuels pour évaluer la créativité des employés. Pourtant, les interactions entre les facteurs individuels et contextuels sont multiples. Par conséquent, nous suggérons d'envisager une approche en terme de fit de la créativité entre les facteurs individuels et contextuels, ce qui nous permet également de proposer de nouvelles pratiques pour le management des ressources humaines. De plus, d’un point de vue théorique, plusieurs chercheurs suggèrent une relation étroite entre la prise de risque et la créativité des employés alors que peu d'études ont analysé cette relation. Le second article confirme qu'il existe une relation positive entre la prise de risque et la créativité des employés et aussi démontre que les facteurs individuels et contextuels issus de la littérature sur le risque et sur la créativité ont mutuellement un impact sur la prise de risque. Ensuite, sur la base de la relation étroite entre les théories du risque et de la créativité, nous abordons le comportement créatif des managers en intégrant le modèle BAM (behavioral agency model) et la théorie des capacités dynamiques. L'objectif de notre modèle théorique est d'expliquer en quoi le comportement créatif des managers devant décider d’importantes décisions stratégiques pourrait être considéré comme dynamique et évoluer avec le temps. Concernant la créativité de l'équipe virtuelle, nous avons examiné les déterminants de la créativité. Nous avons constaté que l’approche par les TMS est fructueuse pour la compréhension de la créativité de l'équipe virtuelle. Nos résultats apportent une contribution à la fois à la littérature sur la créativité et à celle concernant les équipes virtuelles et fournissent d'importantes implications managériales pour les équipes virtuelles.Dans l'ensemble, nos recherches sur la créativité individuelle sont également utiles pour les membres de l'équipe virtuelle alors considérés au niveau individuel et l’étude du comportement créatif des managers pourrait aussi s’appliquer aux managers d’équipes virtuelles. Ces quatre articles permettent (1) de fournir une vision globale de la créativité des employés en proposant l'approche par le fit; (2) d’examiner les relations précises entre la prise de risque et la créativité des employés; (3) d’étendre la théorie de la créativité en intégrant le modèle BAM et la théorie des capacités dynamiques afin de considérer la créativité comme dynamique; (4) et de révéler le rôle important du TMS pour la créativité de l'équipe virtuelle. / Many organizations have relied on creativity to outclass their competitors and the knowledge of how to support creativity has been critical. Generally, creativity could be derived from individuals or a group of individuals working together. Hence, in this thesis, we aim to provide a better understanding on how to facilitate creativity at both individual and team levels. Precisely, for the team level, we focus on virtual team creativity which has been under-researched and challenging to discover. The four articles in this dissertation aim to provide a better understanding and identify the determinants of both individual and virtual team creativity. We have reviewed individual creativity literature to extend the understanding of employee creativity. The review suggests that it is more efficient to consider both individual and contextual factors in order to assess employee creativity. Still, the interactions between individual and contextual factors are varied. Therefore, we suggest considering creativity fit approaches between individual and contextual factors derived from the review and we also provide the comprehensive practices for human resource management. In addition, theoretically, several theorists suggest the close relation between risk-taking and employee creativity whereas very few studies have investigated its relations. The second article confirms that there is a positive relation between risk-taking and employee creativity and also demonstrate that individual and contextual factors from both risk and creativity literature are mutually impacted on risk-taking. Later, based on the close relation between risk and creativity theories, we develop the creative behavior of managers by integrating the behavioral agency model and dynamic capabilities theories. The objective of this theoretical model is to explain how the creative behavior of managers in making an important strategic decision could be viewed as dynamic and evolved over time. For virtual team creativity, we aim to examine the determinants of virtual team creativity which have been recently explored. We found that Transactive Memory Systems, which have been challenging due to their importance with regard to virtual teams, have a positive impact on virtual team creativity. The findings extend both creativity and virtual team literature and provide important practical implications for virtual teams. Overall, the investigation of individual creativity is also useful for virtual team members at an individual level and managers’ creative behavior could also assess the creative behavior of virtual team managers. These four articles could in fact (1) provide the global view of employee creativity by proposing the fit approach; (2) examine the precise relations of risk-taking and employee creativity; (3) extend the creativity theory by integrating BAM and the dynamic capabilities theory to consider creativity as dynamic; (4) and reveal the critical roles of TMS in virtual team creativity.

(in English) The subject of this master thesis is a cognitive offloading, sometimes also called cognitive outsourcing, meaning the impact of new media on human cognitive abilities. This work describes the evolution of the theoretical concept of cognitive offloading, types of cognitive offloading and it's functioning in today's society. Following Daniel Wegner's work, it describes basic concepts such as group mind and transactive memory and it focuses on a specific area of cognitive offloading - the impact of mobile photography on human memory. The thesis summarizes results of existing studies in this field and presents the results of a replicated pilot study conducted with the students of Czech high school. The aim of this study was to find out if - and to what extent - does smartphones impact one's memory and cognitive abilities in daily life. The conclusion analyzes the limits of this work and outlines further research possibilities in this field.

The objective of this dissertation study is to provide the theoretical foundation for collaborative information technology moderation on team performance and give empirical evidence to support this relationship. The model provided in this study is supported by analytical proofs for the proposed hypotheses to define relationships among constructs in this research including departure (reduction in the number of team members), collaborative information technology functionality, transactive memory strength, and team performance. This research offers a theory that utilizes transactive memory systems (TMS) to examine the departure problem. The main research question is: Can collaborative information technologies (CIT) alleviate negative effects of departure? The theory in this study is structured around the indicators of TMS: specialization, coordination, and credibility. Findings showed that CIT functionality level plays a role in enhancing the group performance. This role is not direct but instead, is a moderation effect that alleviates the negative departure impact. In absence of departure, CIT impact can be confusing as it can be either positive or negative. My analytical results explain why information systems literature has had conflicting arguments on the role of technology. I propose that particular dynamic events and incidents, such as employee departure, help us understand the impact of CIT more clearly. Moreover, I employ transactive memory theory to explain how individuals develop and exchange knowledge in a group and how skills and knowledge can be lost due to departure. I also explain why and how team performance benefits from CIT when departure occurs. / text

In this dissertation, I investigate predictors and consequences of transactive memory system (TMS) development. A transactive memory system is a shared system for encoding, storing, and recalling who knows what within a group. Groups with well-developed transactive memory systems typically perform better than groups lacking such memory systems. I study how communication enhances the development of TMS and how turnover disrupts both TMS and its relationship to group performance. More specifically, I examine how communication networks affect the amount of communication, how the structure of the communication network affects the extent to which the group members share a strong identity as a group, and how both of these factors affect a group’s TMS. I also analyze how turnover disrupts the relationship between transactive memory systems and group performance. In addition, I examine how the communication network and turnover interact to affect group performance. I analyze these effects in three laboratory studies. The controlled setting of the experimental laboratory permits me to make causal inferences about the relationship of turnover and the communication network to group outcomes. Results promise to advance theory about transactive memory systems and communication networks.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(経済学) / 甲第22717号 / 経博第620号 / 新制||経||294(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院経済学研究科経済学専攻 / (主査)教授 関口 倫紀, 教授 若林 直樹, 教授 椙山 泰生 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Economics / Kyoto University / DGAM

Technical artifacts, such as smartphones, computers, search engines and computer programs are extensively used by the modern human. It seems like people use these artifacts to remember important information and become better at finding information effectively with them as a constant available aid. This study aims to explore the possibility that human memory sieves away information that is saved in a database and instead focuses on remembering how to get access to the needed information. More precisely this paper aims to examine if people do focus on the content of information or where information is to be found. The motivation of the study was to investigate if smartphones can bring positive outcomes to human cognitive processes and if modern humans are adapting to the technical world. The present study is a replication of Sparrow et al.’s (2011) original study, which presents findings that suggest that humans remember things they know they have access to less than information they do not have access to. Two research questions were investigated in the present study through an experiment, conducted with university students at Linköping University as test participants. The experiment investigated if the participants focused on remembering the content of presented statements, or remembering if the statements were about to be saved or deleted after being exposed to them. The result presented nostatistically significance. Conclusively it is recommended to continue with further studies on the subject and to conduct more replication of Sparrow et al.’s original study, due to the conflicting findings. A speculation is that a cause for the lacking significant result is the relatively small sample size, and future studies are therefore recommended to test a greater number of test participants. Despite the result it is possible that humans use technical artefacts to enhance cognitive processes, and use smartphones as a transactive memory partners, due to the extensive use of technical artifacts and the original study’s findings.

Distributed teams continue to emerge in response to the complex organizational environments brought about by globalization, technological advancements, and the shift toward a knowledge-based economy. These teams are comprised of members who hold the disparate knowledge necessary to take on cognitively demanding tasks. However, knowledge coordination between team members who are not co-located is a significant challenge, often resulting in process loss and decrements to the effectiveness of team level knowledge structures. The current effort explores the configuration dimension of distributed teams, and specifically how subgroup formation based on geographic location, may impact the effectiveness of a team's transactive memory system and subsequent team process. In addition, the role of task cohesion as a buffer to negative intergroup interaction is explored.

A transactive memory system (TMS) is a means by which people may store information externally; in such a system the task of remembering is offloaded by remembering where information is located, rather than remembering the information itself. As Sparrow et al. (2011) suggest in the article Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips, people are beginning to use the internet and computers as a TMS, and this use is changing the way people encounter and treat information. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate whether preference for TMS type (either with books or with computers) varies across age groups. An interaction between TMS preference and age was hypothesized. Before the onset of the internet age, information was primarily found in books and other print materials whereas now the internet is more frequently used, thus this shift in thinking and habit across generations was expected to emerge in the data. The study yielded a total of 51 participants, 32 from the young age group (ages 18-24) and 19 from the old (ages 61-81). A modified Stroop task and question blocks (for priming purposes) were employed to examine whether people are prone to think of book- or computer-related sources when in search of information. Also, a "Look up or Learn" tendencies survey was used to better understand how people decide whether certain information should be learned or left to be "looked up" later (Yacci & Rosanski, 2012). The mixed ANOVA did not reveal main effects for question difficulty or TMS type, nor was an interaction with age found. The results were not consistent with those of Sparrow et al. (2011) and did not show significance for TMS preference. Future studies should continue to examine the Google effect and TMS preference, as it bears important applications for a number of fields.