During team decision-making practices information is often shared among team members as part of the decision making process. Knowledge sharing involves one team member sharing information so that other team members can encode the knowledge to make their own mental representation of the new information (Huan & Jiang, 2012). Unfortunately, the literature has shown that new information is not always shared between team members during decision making processes (Stasser & Titus, 1985). When teams make decisions without considering all the information available poor decisions can result. This research study tests a team conceptual model derived by Turner (2013) addressing attitudes toward knowledge sharing. Structural equation modeling was conducted to test a portion of Turner’s (2013) team conceptual model. The tested model included the independent variables of psychological safety, team conflict, team cohesion, and transactive memory systems. The dependent variable for the dissertation was knowledge sharing.

Shared mental models (SMM) and Transactive memory systems (TMS) have been advocated as the main team learning mechanisms. Despite multiple appeals for collaboration, research in both these fields has progressed in parallel and little effort has been made to integrate these theories. The purpose of this study was to test the relationship between SMM and TMS in a field setting and examine their influence on various team effectiveness outcomes such as team performance, team learning, team creativity, team members' satisfaction and team viability. Contextual factors relevant to an organizational setting were tested and these included team size, tenure, country of origin, team reward and organizational support. Based on responses from 41 teams from 7 industries across two countries (US and India), results indicate that team size, country of origin and team tenure impact team performance and team learning. In addition, team reward and organizational support predicted team viability and satisfaction. Results indicated that TMS components (specialization, coordination and credibility) were better predictors of team outcomes than the omnibus TMS construct. In particular, TMS credibility predicted team performance and creativity while TMS coordination predicted team viability and satisfaction. SMM was measured in two different ways: an average deviation index and a 6-item scale. Both methods resulted in a conceptually similar interpretation although average deviation indices provided slightly better results in predicting effectiveness outcomes. TMS components moderated the relationship between SMM and team outcomes. Team performance was lowest when both SMM and TMS were low. However, contrary to expectations, high levels of SMM did not always result in effective team outcomes (performance, learning and creativity) especially when teams exhibited high TMS specialization and credibility. An interaction pattern was observed under conditions of low levels of SMM such that high TMS resulted in higher levels of team outcomes. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

L’organisation fonctionnelle des entreprises impose un fonctionnement en mode projet. Ces projets sont menés par des experts de différentes spécialités et d’origine diverses. Ces équipes ont besoin d’outils pour être performant et proposer des solutions adaptées aux multiples besoins des marchés de plus en plus exigeants. Au cours de leurs réunions et activités, ils se créé une conscience de groupe qui s’enrichit à travers les interactions et s’appuie sur divers représentations externes. Cette thèse aborde l’étude des mécanismes permettant la performance des équipes de conception collaborative en réunion synchrone. Elle a essayé de démontrer les liens entre leur Système de Mémoire Transactive (TMS), leurs Activités de Conception Collaboratives (CDA) et leurs Objets désignés Ressources (RSC), et d’identifier les éléments favorisant ces liens. Nous avons dans un premier temps réalisé une enquête auprès des équipes de conception collaborative en environnement universitaire. Puis dans un second temps nous avons réalisé une expérimentation sur deux équipes en situation de conception collaborative synchrone autour du Serious Game Delta Design déployé sur une table interactive. Les résultats de cette recherche montrent que si la performance est favorisée par la TMS ou la CDA, leur lien statistique est établit, de même que le lien entre les activités de conception et les ressources mobilisées. Cependant, l’absence de lien statistique fort TMS CDA montre que les équipes ne semblent conscientes de l’utilisation des objets dans la construction de leur TMS, alors que les artefacts de la table interactive sont les plus sollicités et les activités de prise de décision semblent les plus importantes dans ces séances.Cette thèse contribue au corpus de connaissance sur l’étude des équipes de conception collaborative et mets à disposition des outils d’évaluation de la performance des équipes de conception collaboratives synchrone. / Today functional structure of enterprises requires teamwork and project mode organization. These projects are carried out by experts from different domains of expertise. Besides the teams need supporting tools in order to improve the efficiency of their design process and to propose adapted solutions to complex design problems. In the course of their meetings and collaborative activities they create group awareness through their interactions and creation of various artifacts. This thesis studies mechanisms that underlie performance of collaborative design team in synchronous meeting. In this thesis we demonstrate the links between Transactive Memory System (TMS), Collaborative Design Activities (CDA) and Objects called Resources (RSC), and identify the elements that drive these links. A survey has been used to study collaborative design teams in academic environment. Then, we performed direct observation of two teams during synchronous collaborative design meetings with a serious game Delta Design on interactive table. Results show that if performance is enhanced statistically by good TMS or CDA, and the link is demonstrate, so is the links between CDA RSC. However, the lack of statistical strong correlation between TMS and RSC seems to show that team members are not conscious of using artifacts during TMS building. While artifacts on interactive table are more solicited and decision making activities seems to be more important during their session. This thesis contributes to a better understanding of collaborative design teams and offers tools to evaluate collaborative design activities.

With the increased use of technology in society, there are concerns about how reading is affected by the constant access to an incessantly increasing amount of information. The present study examined how reading strategies and resulting memory and comprehension is affected by the belief that information to be remembered would continue to be available. In a within- participant experiment, twenty-seven participants were instructed to read six texts, and led to believe that they would have access to some of the texts while later answering comprehension questions. The results showed that participants spent significantly longer time reading texts they believed would not be accessible later, compared to those they believed they would have access to (p= .0007, d = 0.47). The participants did achieve slightly higher scores on the comprehension questions for the texts they believed they would not have access to, compared to the other condition, but the effect was not significant. The findings have implications for potential changes to reading strategies in response to increased use of technology as an external memory and information storage. I discuss how these strategies could have affected the raise of Fake News, inasmuch as increased information load from the Internet leads to a less meticulous reading style. / Den ökade teknologianvändningen i samhället medför oro kring hur läsande påverkas av den ständiga tillgången till ständigt växande informationsmängder. Syften med föreliggande studie var att undersöka hur lässtrategier påverkas av förväntan om senare informationstillgång. I ett experiment med inompersonsdesign blev tjugosju deltagare instruerade att läsa sex texter, och ledda till att tro att de skulle ha tillgång till några av texterna när de i ett senare moment skulle svara på läsförståelsefrågor. Resultaten visade att deltagare spenderade signifikant längre tid på att läsa texter de inte trodde att de skulle ha tillgång till senare, jämfört med de som de trodde skulle finnas tillgängliga (p= .0007, d = 0.47). Deltagarna fick även högre poäng på läsförståelsefrågorna som baserades på de texter de trott skulle försvinna jämfört med den andra betingelsen, men effekten var ej signifikant). Att endast en liten trend i skillnad mellan läsförståelseresultat uppmättes tros bero på ett undermåligt mätinstrument. Resultaten har implikationer för potentiella förändringar i lässtrategier baserat på ökad tillgång till teknologiska minneshjälpmedel och informationslagringssystem. Vidare diskussion reflekterar över hur dessa strategier kan ha påverkat den ökade spridningen av Fake News, ifall ökad informationsbelastning från internet leder till en mindre noggrann lässtil.

Context. Large-scale software development projects are those consisting of a large number of teams, maybe even spread across multiple locations, and working on large and complex software tasks. That means that neither a team member individually nor an entire team holds all the knowledge about the software being developed and teams have to communicate and coordinate their knowledge. Therefore, teams and team members in large-scale software development projects must acquire and manage expertise as one of the critical resources for high-quality work. Objectives. We aim at understanding whether software teams in different contexts develop transactive memory systems (TMS) and whether well-developed TMS leads to performance benefits as suggested by research conducted in other knowledge-intensive disciplines. Because multiple factors may influence the development of TMS, based on related TMS literature we also suggest to focus on task allocation strategies, task characteristics and management decisions regarding the project structure, team structure and team composition. Methods. We use the data from two large-scale distributed development companies and 9 teams, including quantitative data collected through a survey and qualitative data from interviews to measure transactive memory systems and their role in determining team performance. We measure teams’ TMS with a latent variable model. Finally, we use focus group interviews to analyze different organizational practices with respect to team management, as a set of decisions based on two aspects: team structure and composition, and task allocation. Results. Data from two companies and 9 teams are analyzed and the positive influence of well-developed TMS on team performance is found. We found that in large-scale software development, teams need not only well-developed team’s internal TMS, but also have well- developed and effective team’s external TMS. Furthermore, we identified practices that help of hinder development of TMS in large-scale projects. Conclusions. Our findings suggest that teams working in large-scale software development can achieve performance benefits if transactive memory practices within the team are supported with networking practices in the organization.

「兩人」是團隊組成的最小單位，回顧人類社會經濟活動的發展，許多重要的創新，經常是從兩人團隊開始。特別是以創意為核心的任務或作為，更易於以兩人為基礎，個別尋覓契合自我價值觀、專業能力，和人格特質的合作搭檔。雖然兩人團隊是人類社會經濟活動的常態，存在著重要的學理和實務意涵需要探討；但是，目前有關兩人團隊的文獻仍不多見。本研究的目的，即在回應此一文獻缺口，探討兩人團隊創意交融的系絡。 研究採取比較個案研究法，以八個兩人設計團隊進行半結構的深度訪談，正式研究前則進行了兩個前導個案的研究。經彙整訪談逐字稿之文本分析內容後，本研究有三個主要發現。第一，兩人設計團隊創意協作的歷程，從成員對產品核心概念的探索開始，之後會經歷共同建構創意、精緻化創意和實踐創意等過程。而產品核心概念的頓悟，通常是兩人在相近的問題意識下，從參與共享的情境當中浮現。此一情境浮現之頓悟並不專屬哪一方，但又必須仰賴兩人共同參與情境而獲得。第二，友誼是促進兩人設計團隊發展交融記憶系統的重要因素，友誼不僅帶動了兩人從玩票接案到正式形成團隊，同時也在團隊運作過程中，增強交融記憶系統本身的能量。第三，成員會透過不同形式的溝通互動，促進資訊的交流並精緻彼此的創意，這些形式包括了競爭型互動、合作型互動，和基於玩興的互動。 整體而言，本研究拓展了吾人對於兩人團隊及其創意交融的理解，也對團隊經營和團隊創意管理的實務有所貢獻。團隊發展實務上，可培養交融記憶系統成為團隊賴以運作的核心能耐，並透過成員共同參與情境的方式，營造有利於兩人從事創意交融活動的場域。 / ‘Two person’ is a basic unit of the composition of a team. Looking back on the historical development of the social and economic activities of the human, many radical innovations were often invented by two-person teams. Especially, creative workers, based on the two-person team structure, are more likely to search for the right partner that whose vision, value, expertise, and personality are best fit with each other. Despite the research on two-person team could provide valuable theoretical and practical implications for team literature; very little attention has given to such phenomena. Using a multi-case of eight two-person design teams, this dissertation explores the creative collaboration within the two-person teams. Through the qualitative analysis of the data, this dissertation provides three major findings. First, the creative collaboration processes within the two-person team contain four stages which begin exploring the core concept of the product. Then, team members collectively co-construct, elaborate and execute the core concept of the product. The insight of core concept of the product usually emerges from the two persons who have similar problem awareness and collectively engage in a shared context. This insight is not exclusive which party, but must rely on both sides to collectively engage in the shared context to develop. Second, friendship plays an important role for facilitating the development of the team’s transactive memory system (TMS). Friendship not only helps the two persons to build a team, help the team’s TMS function well in the team development processes. Third, members within the two-person team use three kinds of dialogue communication for exchanging information and elaborating creative ideas of the members. The three kinds of dialogue are: competitive dialogue, collaborative dialogue, and playfulness dialogue. Overall, this dissertation extends the current knowledge in management area about the creative collaboration within the two-person teams. Results of this dissertation also contribute to the management for two-person teams and the management of team members’ creative ideas. This dissertation suggests the two-person teams can build TMS as a team’s core capability and engage in shared contexts where beneficial for the creative collaboration.

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許多組織為了建立競爭優勢，運用團隊成員的專業及經驗去解決問題，創造差異化的產品。這個趨勢可以解釋為何團隊的研究目前又開始熱門，特別是團隊知識歷程。“交融記憶系統”（TMS） 就是其中一個著重在瞭解團隊知識歷程的理論架構。“交融記憶系統”的構念，特別強調如何利用和組合分散在個人身上的專業，以幫助我們瞭解知識任務者的團隊如何充分發揮個別成員知識的價值（Lewis,2003） 。透過團隊的交融記憶系統，團隊成員可以建立各自專業，信賴且有效溝通，這似乎正是解決目前產業問題的良方。 Lewis（2003）為了在實務上有效應用交融記憶系統的理論，到各種不同目的與型態的團隊，編制了交融記憶系統量表。這個量表包括“專業”（Specialization）、“信賴”（Credibility）、與“協調”（Coordination）三個分量表，每個分量表各有五個題目，整個量表共有15題的5點李克特式量表。以其研究物件的團隊 來看，此量表可廣泛應用于研發創新團隊、中小型企業與新創公司等，幫助公司預估績效與提高競爭力。 本研究分為兩大部分。第一部分為量化研究，對Lewis（2003）所編量表進行修訂，以用來測量臺灣地區團隊的團隊交融記憶系統：為了驗證本量表效度，本研究收集了大量企業及學生團隊樣本，以統計方法分析績效良好團隊在交融記憶系統量表分數，是否顯著高於績效不彰團隊外，也分析交融記憶系統量表與團隊成員“依附風格” 、“創新行為”、“團隊創意觀念產生”、“成就目標” 之間的相關關係，以確認量表的建構效度。第二部份研究為質性研究，透過對實務團隊的深入訪談與實證，驗證交融記憶系統在成效良好團運作的現況。 本研究第一個成果在成功修訂交融記憶系統量表。修訂後的量表在統計分析後，績效良好團隊的交融記憶系統量表分數，顯著高於績效不彰團；和“依附風格”、“創新行為”、“團隊創意觀念產生”、“成就目標”之間的相關性，也和理論原始架構相符，證實了量表的信效度。本量表將可有效衡量臺灣各式團隊的交融記憶系統。 本研究的第二個成果，透過實務團隊的訪談與實證，驗證了交融記憶系統在國內成效良好團隊運作的現況。文化創意產業的紙風車兒童劇團 ，及TIC100創業競賽的冠軍團隊 ，這兩個成功典範團隊的運作中，雖然成員本身沒有認知到系統的存在，不過都有運作良好的團隊交融記憶系統，再度確認交融記憶系統理論架構在實務上團隊中的運作。 筆者透過成功典範的訪談與適合臺灣量表的建立，希望能做為業界建立與運作團隊時的參考，而對團隊的成功運作有所幫助。 關鍵字：交融記憶系統、團隊、研發、創造力