The early region 1a oncogene of adenovirus 5 codes for proteins that can activate transcription of viral and cellular genes. This study describes the construction of three deletions and one point mutation that together span the entire coding region of the second exon of E1A. The exon-2 mutants were tested for their ability to activate transcription from the adenovirus early region 3 promoter (E3) in transient expression assays. Dl1116 (dl aa 205-221) did not affect transactivation of E3 in pKCAT-23. Sub1117 (dl exon-2 aa) and dl1115 (dl aa 188-204) were unable to activate transcription. Pm1131 (SER-219 to stop) had a reduced transactivating efficiency but was still able to stimulate transcription. These results define the 3' boundary of a transactivation domain on the E1A proteins as being between positions 188 and 204. Results obtained in our lab define the 5' boundary as being between 138-147 (Jelsma et al., 1988). The mutants that could not transactivate were tested for their ability to block wildtype E1A transactivation of the E3 promoter in assays similar to those described by Glenn and Ricciardi (1987). Dl1115 and sub1117 appeared to block transactivation by WT E1A. In transient expression assays, the fatty acid sodium butyrate was found to stimulate transcription of the CAT gene, when added to the medium of HeLa cells transfected with pKCAT-23. This suggests that sodium butyrate is transactivating the Ad 5 E3 promoter. / Thesis / Master of Science (MS)

Alors que le complexe snRNP est bien décrit chez les vertébrés, il nécessite plus d’études chez les invertébrés. Le snARN 7SK sert de maintient structural pour la fixation d’HEXIM à P-TEFb. En retour, HEXIM inhibe l’activité kinase de CDK9 via une fixation directe avec la Cycline T. En conséquence, les interactions entre le snARN 7SK et HEXIM va piéger le complexe P-TEFb sous une forme inactive qui conduit à inhiber l’élongation transcriptionnelle. Dans notre étude, nous montrons qu’un contrôle de l’activité P-TEFb existe aussi chez la Drosophile. Et la dynamique d’équilibre entre les deux formes de P-TEFb dépend également du snARN 7SK. Ce modèle est donc utilisé pour étudier le rôle biologique de la snRNP, et plus spécialement d’HEXIM, dans un contexte intégré. Nous avons donc analysé le profile d’expression d’HEXM durant le cycle de vie de la Drosophile et plus particulièrement pendant l’embryogenèse et l’organogenèse. L’expression permanente et ubiquitaire d’HEXIM suggère qu’elle est nécessaire au développement. Le fait que la perte de fonction d’HEXIM mène à de nombreux et sévères défauts confirme cette hypothèse. En utilisant le modèle des disques imaginaux de l’aile et de l’œil, nous avons étudié plus en profondeur le rôle d’HEXIM et nous avons montré qu’elle est essentielle pour la viabilité cellulaire. De plus, la perte de fonction d’HEXIM conduit à des changements du destin cellulaire et à des modifications des profiles d’expression de plusieurs gènes sélecteurs ou de morphogènes. De façon surprenante, la diminution d’HEXIM induit l’accumulation de Ci155 qui est requise pour activer l’expression de Ptc, ainsi que l’activation ectopique de la voie Hh. Cette accumulation notable de Ci155 est également détectée dans les cellules “immortelles” et dans les tissus en cours de régénération à la suite d’une ablation par voie génétique. Sur la base de ces données, nous proposons un rôle possible de l’accumulation de Ci155 dans le phénomène de prolifération compensatrice. Finalement, nous avons caractérisé un nouvel analogue du snARN 7SK chez la Drosophile, qui a été nommé dm7SK-like snARN. Ce dernier a une structure secondaire très similaire à celle de ces homologues vertébrés, alors que la séquence primaire est assez différente. De plus, presque tous les domaines structuraux importants pour les interactions avec HEXIM et les autres partenaires sont conservés chez cet ARN. Des interactions directes ont été démontrées entre HEXIM et cet ARN suggérant qu’il est un analogue structural du snARN 7SK. Ainsi, la présence de deux analogues du snARN 7SK suggère un autre niveau de régulation de l’expression des gènes, au moins chez la Drosophile. / Whereas 7SK snRNP complex has been well characterized in vertebrates, its activities still remain to be further elucidated in invertebrates. 7SK snRNA serves as a structural scaffold for the efficient binding of HEXIM to P-TEFb. HEXIM in turn inhibits the kinase activity of CDK9 via its direct binding to CyclinT. Consequently, the interaction between 7SK snRNA and HEXIM sequesters the active P-TEFb complex into the inactive form, thereby suppressing the transcription elongation. In this study, we first show that a similar P-TEFb control system exists in Drosophila. In addition, the dynamic equilibrium of the two complexes of P-TEFb in Drosophila also depends on 7SK snRNA. Thank to this similarity, we are able to examine the biological role of 7SK snRNP complex, especially HEXIM protein, in an integrative organism as Drosophila model. We next document the expression profile of HEXIM throughout the life cycle of Drosophila, especially during embryogenesis and organogenesis. The continuous and ubiquitous expression of HEXIM suggests its necessity during development. We demonstrate that HEXIM is indeed essential for the proper development of Drosophila, since its down-regulation results in numerous severe defects. By using wing and eye imaginal discs as study models, we further examine biological roles of HEXIM, and reveal that it is required for cell viability. Moreover, HEXIM knockdown leads to changes in cell fate commitments, and modifications in expression patterns of several selector genes and morphogens. Strikingly, down-regulation of HEXIM significantly induces the accumulation of Ci155, which is required for Ptc expression, and the ectopic activation of Hh signaling. This remarkable accumulation of Ci155 is also detected in “undead cells” and regenerated tissue upon genetic ablation. Given these findings, we thus propose a putative role of Ci155 accumulation in compensatory proliferation. Finally, we characterize a novel analog of 7SK snRNA in Drosophila, which is named dm7SK-like snRNA. This snRNA displays a very similar secondary structure with its vertebrate homologs, although the primary sequence is relatively different. More importantly, almost all of the structural elements crucial for the interaction with HEXIM and other partners are found conserved in this novel dm7SK-like snRNA. A direct interaction between dHEXIM and this snRNA also suggests that it is a functional analog of 7SK snRNA in Drosophila. Thus, the intriguing finding of the two analogs of 7SK snRNA would propose another regulation level of gene expression, at least in Drosophila.

付記する学位プログラム名: 充実した健康長寿社会を築く総合医療開発リーダー育成プログラム / 京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第24521号 / 医博第4963号 / 新制||医||1065(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 斎藤 通紀, 教授 萩原 正敏, 教授 戸井 雅和 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

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C-reactive protein (CRP) is synthesized in hepatocytes. The serum concentration of CRP increases dramatically during the acute phase response. In human hepatoma Hep3B cells, maximal CRP expression occurs in cells treated with the combination of IL-6 and IL-1β. IL-6 induces transcription of the CRP gene and IL-1β synergistically enhances the effects of IL-6. We investigated the role of IL-6-activated transcription factor STAT3, also known as STAT3α, in inducing CRP expression since we identified four consensus STAT3-binding sites centered at positions - 72, - 108, - 134 and - 164 on the CRP promoter. It has been shown previously that STAT3 binds to the site at - 108 and induces CRP expression. We found that STAT3 also bound to the other three sites, and several STAT3-containing complexes were formed at each site, suggesting the presence of STAT3 isoforms and additional transcription factors in the complexes. Mutation of the STAT3 sites at - 108, - 134 or - 164 resulted in decreased CRP expression in response to IL-6 and IL-1β treatment, although the synergy between IL-6 and IL-1β was not affected by the mutations. The STAT3 site at - 72 could not be investigated employing mutagenesis. We also found that IL-6 activated two isoforms of STAT3 in Hep3B cells: STAT3α which contains both a DNA-binding domain and a transactivation domain and STAT3β which contains only the DNA-binding domain. Taken together, these findings raise the possibility that IL-6 not only induces CRP expression but also regulates the induction of CRP expression by activating STAT3 isoforms and by utilizing all four STAT3 sites.

In bacteria, the RNA polymerase (RNAP) consists of the following subunits: α2, β, β’, ω and σ. The core RNAP (α2ββ’ω) possesses the polymerising activity and it associates with one of the sigma factors to initiate transcription from a promoter region on the DNA template. All bacteria carry an essential housekeeping sigma factor and a number of extra cytoplasmic function (ECF) sigma factors. During alternate physiological states, a major part of transcriptional regulation is carried out by sigma factors, which act as transcriptional switches, thus, making it possible for bacteria to adapt to varied environmental signals by transcribing the necessary set of genes. Bacteriophages utilise various mechanisms for subverting the bacterial biochemical machinery for their advantage. One such example in E. coli is AsiA protein encoded by an early gene of T4 bacteriophage. Because of its property of binding to σ70, AsiA can inhibit transcription from E. coli promoters bearing –10 and –35 DNA sequences leading to inhibition of growth. σ70 of E. coli is also regulated by a stationary phase specific protein, Rsd, whose major function seems to be helping the cell in switching the transcription in favour of stationary phase genes. In this study we have investigated the mechanism of interaction of T4 AsiA and E. coli Rsd to σ70 of E. coli and also tried to determine the basis of differential inhibition of E. coli growth by AsiA and Rsd. In chapter one we have reviewed the published literature on regulation of transcription in bacteria. Some of the well known mechanisms of regulating gene expression are: DNA supercoiling, two component signal transduction system (TCS), regulation by alarmone ppGpp and 6S RNA, and sigma-antisigma interactions. Most bacteria carry a number of sigma factors and each of them is dedicated to transcribing genes in response to environmental signals. Intracellular levels of sigma factors and their binding affinity to core RNAP are deciding factors for initiating transcription from specific subsets of genes. In addition, sigma factor activity is also controlled by specific proteins, which bind to sigma factors (anti-sigma factors) under certain environmental conditions. A number of anti-sigma factors have been isolated from a variety of bacteria and the mechanisms of action of binding to cognate sigma factors have been worked out by using genetic, biochemical and structural tools. In chapter two, using yeast two hybrid assay (YTH), we have identified the regions of σ70 which interact with AsiA, and it was observed that amino acid residues from 547-603, encompassing region 4.1 and 4.2 are involved in binding to σ70. Interestingly, we found that truncated σ70 fragments lacking the N-terminal regions, apparently bound to AsiA with higher affinity compared to full length σ70. As AsiA expression, because of its transcription inhibitory activity, is inhibitory to E.coli growth, co-expression of the truncated C-terminal σ70 fragments (e.g. residues 493-613, σ70C121), which bind to σ70 with high affinity, could relieve growth inhibition. The complex of GST:AsiA-σ70C121 could be purified from E. coli cells. GST:AsiA purified from E .coli cells was found to be associated with RNAP subunits. Since further studies on this interaction required GST:AsiA preparation devoid of RNAP subunits, we decided to express this protein in S. cerevisiae. Bioinformatics analysis indicated the absence of a σ70 homologue in S.cerevisiae. As expected, GST:AsiA purified from the yeast was found to be free from any RNAP like proteins. The protein purified from yeast was used for in-vitro binding experiments. Our YTH analysis had indicated that deletion a part of region 4.1 or 4.2 of σ70 leads to loss of binding to AsiA. However, the published NMR structure of AsiA in complex with peptides corresponding to region 4 of σ70, showed that either region 4.1 or 4.2 alone can bind to AsiA indicating at the possible existence of two binding sites for AsiA. In order to confirm the physiological significance of this finding, we studied the interaction of truncated σ70 fragments lacking either region 4.1 or 4.2 with AsiA in-vivo in E. coli and in-vitro by affinity pull down assays. It was observed that σ70 fragments lacking either region 4.1 (σ70∆4.1) or 4.2 (σ70∆4.2), did not neutralize the GST:AsiA toxicity, indicating lack of interaction. The affinity purified GST:AsiA from these E. coli cells did not have σ70∆4.1 or σ70∆4.2 associated with it. Similar results were obtained from pull down assays in-vitro, where we found that σ70∆4.1 or σ70∆4.2 do not show any observable interaction with AsiA. This clearly established that the minimum region of σ70 required for physiologically relevant interaction with AsiA consists of both the regions 4.1 and 4.2. Chapter 3 of this thesis has been devoted to this aspect of AsiA-σ70 interaction. Having defined the minimum region of σ70 interacting with AsiA, we sought to identify the regions and amino acid residues of AsiA, which are critical for interaction with σ70. The approach for identification of mutants and their characterisation has been discussed in chapter 4. For this purpose, we made systematic deletions in the N and C-terminal regions of the protein and also isolated random mutants of AsiA, which lack binding to σ70 and thus are non-inhibitory to E. coli growth. It was found that deletion of 5 amino acids from N-terminus and 17 amino acids from C-terminus did not alter the inhibitory activity of AsiA. In contrast, deletion of N-terminal 10 amino residues led to complete loss of activity, while in the C-terminus, a gradual loss of activity was observed when amino acid residues beyond 17 amino acids were deleted. A 34 amino acids C-terminal deletion mutant was found to be completely inactive. E10K mutant was found to be inactive, but changes of E to other amino acids such as S, Y, L, A and Q were tolerated, indicating that negative charge at E10 is not a crucial element for interaction with σ70. Inactive mutants could be overexpressed in E. coli and showed reduced binding in YTH assay and were also poor inhibitors of in-vivo transcription in E. coli. We concluded that the primary σ70 binding site of AsiA is present in the N-terminus, yet C-terminal 64-73 amino acid residues are required for effective binding in-vivo. These studies also correlate the inhibitory potential of AsiA with its σ70 binding proficiency. In chapter 5, we have made a comparative analysis of mechanism of interaction of AsiA and Rsd to E. coli RNAP. Overexpression of Rsd was found to be less inhibitory to E. coli cell growth than that of AsiA. The affinity purified GST-AsiA from E. coli was found to have all the RNAP subunits associated with it, whereas, only σ70 was found to be associated with similarly purified GST:Rsd, pointing towards differences in binding to RNAP. In affinity pull down assays, in-vitro, it was found that both AsiA and Rsd do not show any observable binding to core RNAP. Binding of AsiA to σ70 in holo RNAP led to the formation of a ternary complex, whereas no ternary complex was observed when Rsd was made to interact with holo RNAP. Analysis of protein-protein interaction by YTH showed that region 4.1 and 4.2 are critical for binding of both AsiA and Rsd to σ70. However, in the case of Rsd, the surface of interaction is not limited to this region only and other regions of σ70 make significant contribution to this binding. Possibly, the interaction of Rsd with the core binding regions of σ70 prevents its association with core RNAP. Kinetic analysis of binding by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) showed that binding affinities (Kd) of AsiA and Rsd to σ70 are in similar range. Therefore, we concluded that the ability of AsiA to trap the holo RNAP is, probably, responsible for higher inhibitory activity of this protein compared to that of Rsd. Thus, T4 AsiA and E. coli Rsd, which share regions of interaction on σ70, have evolved differences in their mechanism of binding to RNAP such that T4 AsiA, by trapping the holo RNAP subverts the complete bacterial transcription machinery to transcribe its own genes. Rsd, on the other hand, has evolved to interact primarily with σ70, which favours the utilisation of core RNAP by other sigma factors.

The ability to fine-tune gene-expression in the adverse conditions during pre and post infectious stages has contributed in no small measure to the success of Mycobacterium tuberculosis as the deadly pathogen. Multiple sigma factors, transcription regulators, and diverse two component systemshave facilitated tailoring the metabolic pathways to meet the challenges faced by the pathogen. Over the last decade, studies have been initiated to understand the various facets of transcription in mycobacteria. Although not as extensive as the work in other model systems, such as Escherichia coli and eukaryotes, it is evident from these initial studies that the machinery is conserved,yetmany aspects of transcription and its regulation seem to be different in mycobacteria.The work presented in the thesis deals with some of the steps in the process, primarily initiation in the context of the distinct physiology of M. tuberculosis. The detailed kinetic and equilibrium study of a few selected promoters of M. tuberculosis viz.PgyrB1, PgyrR, PrrnPCL1 and PmetU is described in Chapter 2.Different stages of transcription initiation that have been analyzed include promoter specific binding of RNAP, isomerization, abortive initiation and promoter clearance.The equilibrium binding and kinetic studies of various steps reveal distinct rate limiting events for each of the promoter, which also differed markedly in their characteristics from the respective promoters of Mycobacterium smegmatis. In addition, a novel aspect of the transcription initiation at the gyr promoter was unraveled. The marked differences in the transcription initiation pathway seen with rrn and gyr promoters of M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis suggest that such species specific differences in the regulation of expression of the crucial housekeeping genes could be one of the key determinants contributing to the differences in growth rate and lifestyle of the two organisms. In Chapter 3, the mechanism of growth phase dependent control (GPDC) at a few of the M. tuberculosis promoters has been investigated. The experiments described in the chapter are carried out to demonstrate a different pattern of interaction between the promoters and sigma A (SigA) of M. tuberculosis to facilitate the iNTPs and pppGpp mediated regulation. Instead of cytosine and methionine, thymine at three nucleotides downstream to -10 element and leucine232 in SigA are found to be essential for iNTPs and pppGpp mediated response at the rrn and gyr promoters of the organism. The specificity of the interaction is substantiated by mutational replacements, either in the discriminator or in SigA, which abolish the nucleotide mediated regulation in vitro or in vivo. In chapter 4, the long standing hypothesis that deals with interdependence of the transcription elongation kinetics and the growth rates has been addressed. Previous studies suggest that the rate of synthesis of the key molecules in cells affects the growth kinetics. In order to validate, the kinetics of elongation of RNAPs from M. tuberculosis, M. smegmatis and E. coli whose growth rates vary from very slow to fast is measured. Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is used to monitor the transcription in real time and kinetic equations are applied to calculate the elongation rates. Further, the effects of the composition of the template DNA on the elongation rates of RNAP from E. coli and M. smegmatis, whose genomes show difference in the GC content are explored. The results obtained from the analysis support the hypothesis and also reveal the effect of template composition on elongation rates of RNAP.