Thesis (MScConEcol (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Previously, conservation activities were mainly focussed upon the establishment of protected areas that safeguarded and shielded the natural world from misuse, often resulting in the forced removal of indigenous communities. In South Africa, the ≠Khomani Bushmen, were one such group forcibly evicted from their homelands. Today, the community has regained access to their ancestral lands in the form of a land claim, settled in 1999, that awarded the community land rights in the form of six farms and land use rights within the now Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). This gave them the right to use and manage their property falling within the park together with the conservation authority responsible for the Park, South African National Parks (SANParks). This study aims to improve our understanding of the use of resources by the ≠Khomani Bushmen. By obtaining insight on resource use and how knowledge of this use is transferred and shared, information on how to better involve and integrate the community in management processes is generated. The study identified the most important plants currently used within the ≠Khomani community and assessed this use. Additionally, social network analysis (SNA) was used to investigate how the social network structure depicts the distribution of knowledge which affects the community’s ability to manage their natural plant resources effectively. In an ethnobotanical survey, over 90 individuals were interviewed, using semi-structured interviews, on the farms awarded to the community. In total, 59 plant species from 28 families were found to be in use. Medicinal plants were most frequently cited (60%), with edible plants comprising a further 20%. Data was also collected on social relations surrounding the acquisition, generation and transfer of plant use knowledge. The knowledge networks all depict isolated individuals on the periphery and a few individuals loosely connected to central structures. This study demonstrates that wild plant use remains an important practice for the ≠Khomani people, primarily for medicinal purposes. It serves as baseline data on plant resources being used by the community and adds to our understanding of how traditional knowledge is being transmitted. The insight provided by SNA depicts the current distribution of knowledge and should be used by the community, as supported by network weavers and SANParks, to achieve their joint management goals. Network weaving can potentially counteract ecologically unsustainable practices, promoting collaboration and the transfer of traditional ecological knowledge. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voorheen was bewaringsaktiwiteite meestal gefokus op die vestiging van beskermde areas wat die natuurlike wêreld beveilig en beskerm het van misbruik wat dikwels die gevolg was van die geforseerde verwydering van inheemse gemeenskappe. In Suid-Afrika was die ≠Khomani Boesman groep een van die sodanige groepe wat op ʼn indrukwekkende manier van hulle tuislande uitgesit is. Vandag het die gemeenskap weer toegang gekry tot die land van hulle voorvaders in die indiening van ʼn grond eis wat in 1999 vasgestel is, en wat die gemeenskap grond regte toegeken het in die vorm van ses plase en grond regtelike gebruik binne die sogenoemde Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (KTP). Dit het hulle die reg gegee tot die gebruik en bestuur van hulle eiendom wat binne die park val saam met die bewaringsowerhede wat verantwoordelik is vir die Park, Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Parke (SANParks). Die doel van hierdie studie is om ons begrip te verbeter van die gebruik van hulpbronne deur die ≠Khomani Boesman. Met die verkryging van insig oor hulpbron gebruik en hoe die kennis van hierdie gebruik oorgedra en gedeel word, is inligting oor hoe om ʼn beter betrekking en integrering van die gemeenskap in die bestuursprosesse gegenereer. Die studie het die belangrikste plante geïdentifiseer wat tans gebruik word binne die ≠Khomani gemeenskap met die doel om die gebruik van hierdie plante te assesseer. Sosiale netwerkanalise (SNA) is addisioneel gebruik om ondersoek in te stel oor hoe sosiale netwerk struktuur die verspreiding van kennis uitbeeld wat die gemeenskap se vermoë om hulle natuurlike plant hulpbronne effektief te bestuur affekteer. In ʼn etnobotaniese opname, was oor 90 individuele ondervra op die plase wat aan die gemeenskap toegeken was, met die gebruik van semi-gestruktureerde onderhoude. Dit is gevind dat in totaal 59 plant spesies uit 28 families gebruik word. Medisinale plante was meer dikwels aangehaal (60%) met eetbare plante bestaande uit 20%. Data was ook versamel oor sosiale verwantskappe omringende die verkryging, generering en oordra van kennis in die gebruik van plante. Hierdie netwerk van kennis word alles uitgebeeld in geïsoleerde individue op die periferie en ʼn paar individue wat losweg verbonde is tot sentrale strukture. Hierdie studie identifiseer dat die gebruik van wildeplante ʼn belangrike praktyk bly vir die ≠Khomani mense, hoofsaaklik vir medisinale doeleindes. Dit dien as basis inligting van plant hulpbronne wat tans gebruik word deur die gemeenskap en wat by ons begrip gevoeg word oor hoe tradisionele kennis oorgedra word. Die insig wat deur SNA voorsien word beeld die huidige verspreiding van kennis uit, wat deur die gemeenskap gebruik moet word, as ondersteuning van “network weavers” en SANParks om hulle gesamentlike bestuur doelwitte te bereik. “Network weavers” kan potensieel ekologiese onvolhoubare praktyke teenwerk, wat die samewerking en die oordra van tradisionele ekologiese kennis bevorder.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Three key objectives of transfrontier conservation are biodiversity conservation, local economic development and the promotion of peace and cooperation across international borders (Ramutsindela, 2004). Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCA’s) may incorporate a variety of conservation land uses, and comprise of both consumptive and non-consumptive uses of wildlife (Hanks, 2003). It is critical that this mosaic of land uses is well managed and integrated in order to meet the conservation and socio-economic goals of TFCA’s. One challenge is that different conservation land use areas may have varying effects on wildlife. This study aims to further our understanding of these effects in the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park of South Africa and Mozambique. The research uses the behavioural responses of wildlife as a way of determining the tolerance of wildlife to potentially disturbing activities. Four different conservation land use areas, namely trophy hunting, communal land, photographic tourism and exclusive photographic tourism were studied and compared in and around the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, southern Africa. The aim of this study was to firstly establish the diversity of mammals and the frequency of mammal sightings within each conservation land use area, and secondly, assess the response behaviour of five mammal species to an approaching vehicle. K-means cluster analysis was used on both the mammal sightings data and the response behaviour data in order to determine key influencing variables. Throughout the study period, the mammal diversity and frequency of mammal sightings were the highest in the private ecotourism concession, followed by the national park, and then the trophy hunting reserve and lastly communal land. The behavioural responses displayed by the five study mammals (African elephant, African buffalo, impala, chacma baboon and Burchell’s zebra) also varied considerably between the four conservation land use areas. The lowest response indexes and least number of flight responses occurred in the national park, followed by the private ecotourism concession, and conversely, a higher average initial response index and a greater occurrence of flight responses occurring in the trophy hunting reserve and communal land. According to the findings from the cluster analyses, the type of conservation land use impacts on the sighting potential and sighting quality of mammals, but so do iii topographical differences and seasons. These results can help in the management of each conservation land use area on its own and as an integrated part of a TFCA.

Thesis (MA.(Political science))-University of Pretoria, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references.

Research in tourist behaviour follows the cognitive approach. This contains the behavioural cycle of stimulation (motivation and intention formation), the actual behaviour and experience, and finally the evaluation of consequences. These stages are referred to in tourism as: the pre-trip experience (motivation and intention formation), travel stage (actual behaviour) and the post-travel stage (evaluation of the travel experience). The characteristics, which influence tourist behaviour, indicate that travel motivations are the result of how tourists behave (tourist behaviour). These characteristics are: the decision-making process, demographical factors, marketing mix, external/social factors and internal/ psychological factors (motivations). Motivations to travel have a major influence on the travel behaviour of tourists. Tourists' motivations to satisfy their needs directly influence their behaviour, or the actions they take, in order to satisfy these needs. Due to its impelling and compelling nature, motivation is considered to be one of the most important variables in explaining tourist behaviour. As countries and destinations strive to increase their share of the international and national tourism market, it becomes important to understand why people travel and why they choose a specific ecotourism destination. If travel motivations of tourists are known to the product, it will be an aid when developing a competitive marketing strategy. From the literary review, the following travel motivations occurred regularly: leisure, excitement, socialisation, relaxation, family togetherness, escape, culture, novelty, attractions, knowledge seeking, adventure, prestige, nature, facilities, recreation, attributes, nostalgia, photography, exploration and activities. The literary review further revealed that there are travel motivations commonly found with regard to tourism destinations, and on the other hand, there are travel motivations which are product related. The aim of this research was to determine the travel motivations of tourists to selected national parks in South Africa: Karoo-, Kgalagadi Transfrontier- and Tsitsikamma National Parks. Secondary data was used to determine the visitors' profile, as well as the factor analysis on travel motivations. For the visitors' profile, 286 questionnaires were administered for Karoo National Park, 468 for the Tsitsikamma National Park and 582 for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. For the factor analysis, 318 questionnaires were administered for Karoo National Park, 673 for the Tsitsikamma National Park and 534 for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. Primary data was used to determine the reasons for visiting these parks. 101 Questionnaires were administered for Karoo National Park, 192 for the Tsitsikamma National Park and 104 for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. The foremost findings of the research were divided into three categories, namely: visitors' profile, reasons for visiting the parks and travel motivations. Regarding visitors profile; it was found that profiles for the three parks were quite similar, except for the following: expenditure of tourists at Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park, where the average spending of tourists was higher and directly linked to the duration of stay; duration of stay indicated that tourists visiting Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park stayed longer. Two major markets were revealed by the research for all three parks, namely: Gauteng and Western Cape, with the exception of Tsitsikamma National Park, which had a third market of importance, namely Eastern Cape. This information is important when developing marketing strategies. It was especially evident that 4x4 vehicles are the preferred mode of transport for visitors to Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. Therefore, this park can be marketed as a 4x4 destination. From these results one can conclude that the profile of tourists to the three selected national parks showed minor differences. Primary data was used to determine the reasons why tourists visit the selected parks. Among the most important travel reasons why tourists visit the selected parks, was: to relax, for family recreation, to get away from regular routine and for the benefit of the children. The factor analysis regarding travel motives revealed the following: five factors were identified for Karoo National Park and six factors were identified for both Tsitsikamma- and Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Parks. Results illustrated that these parks have common and unique motives. Common travel motives in these parks include: park attributes, escape and relaxation, as well as knowledge seeking. Unique to Karoo National Park, was attractions and family togetherness, compared to photography and adventure for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park, and adventure and attractions for the Tsitsikamma National Park. A combined factor analysis was also conducted, which showed knowledge seeking, park attributes, as well as escape and relaxation as the most important travel motives of tourists visiting the three selected national parks. This research, therefore, confirmed that different attractions and destinations feed different travel motives, even when classified as similar types of products. Marketers can use this information to position these parks and to develop better marketing strategies, to enable national parks to outwit their competitors. / Thesis (M.A. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Research in tourist behaviour follows the cognitive approach. This contains the behavioural cycle of stimulation (motivation and intention formation), the actual behaviour and experience, and finally the evaluation of consequences. These stages are referred to in tourism as: the pre-trip experience (motivation and intention formation), travel stage (actual behaviour) and the post-travel stage (evaluation of the travel experience). The characteristics, which influence tourist behaviour, indicate that travel motivations are the result of how tourists behave (tourist behaviour). These characteristics are: the decision-making process, demographical factors, marketing mix, external/social factors and internal/ psychological factors (motivations). Motivations to travel have a major influence on the travel behaviour of tourists. Tourists' motivations to satisfy their needs directly influence their behaviour, or the actions they take, in order to satisfy these needs. Due to its impelling and compelling nature, motivation is considered to be one of the most important variables in explaining tourist behaviour. As countries and destinations strive to increase their share of the international and national tourism market, it becomes important to understand why people travel and why they choose a specific ecotourism destination. If travel motivations of tourists are known to the product, it will be an aid when developing a competitive marketing strategy. From the literary review, the following travel motivations occurred regularly: leisure, excitement, socialisation, relaxation, family togetherness, escape, culture, novelty, attractions, knowledge seeking, adventure, prestige, nature, facilities, recreation, attributes, nostalgia, photography, exploration and activities. The literary review further revealed that there are travel motivations commonly found with regard to tourism destinations, and on the other hand, there are travel motivations which are product related. The aim of this research was to determine the travel motivations of tourists to selected national parks in South Africa: Karoo-, Kgalagadi Transfrontier- and Tsitsikamma National Parks. Secondary data was used to determine the visitors' profile, as well as the factor analysis on travel motivations. For the visitors' profile, 286 questionnaires were administered for Karoo National Park, 468 for the Tsitsikamma National Park and 582 for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. For the factor analysis, 318 questionnaires were administered for Karoo National Park, 673 for the Tsitsikamma National Park and 534 for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. Primary data was used to determine the reasons for visiting these parks. 101 Questionnaires were administered for Karoo National Park, 192 for the Tsitsikamma National Park and 104 for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. The foremost findings of the research were divided into three categories, namely: visitors' profile, reasons for visiting the parks and travel motivations. Regarding visitors profile; it was found that profiles for the three parks were quite similar, except for the following: expenditure of tourists at Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park, where the average spending of tourists was higher and directly linked to the duration of stay; duration of stay indicated that tourists visiting Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park stayed longer. Two major markets were revealed by the research for all three parks, namely: Gauteng and Western Cape, with the exception of Tsitsikamma National Park, which had a third market of importance, namely Eastern Cape. This information is important when developing marketing strategies. It was especially evident that 4x4 vehicles are the preferred mode of transport for visitors to Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park. Therefore, this park can be marketed as a 4x4 destination. From these results one can conclude that the profile of tourists to the three selected national parks showed minor differences. Primary data was used to determine the reasons why tourists visit the selected parks. Among the most important travel reasons why tourists visit the selected parks, was: to relax, for family recreation, to get away from regular routine and for the benefit of the children. The factor analysis regarding travel motives revealed the following: five factors were identified for Karoo National Park and six factors were identified for both Tsitsikamma- and Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Parks. Results illustrated that these parks have common and unique motives. Common travel motives in these parks include: park attributes, escape and relaxation, as well as knowledge seeking. Unique to Karoo National Park, was attractions and family togetherness, compared to photography and adventure for Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park, and adventure and attractions for the Tsitsikamma National Park. A combined factor analysis was also conducted, which showed knowledge seeking, park attributes, as well as escape and relaxation as the most important travel motives of tourists visiting the three selected national parks. This research, therefore, confirmed that different attractions and destinations feed different travel motives, even when classified as similar types of products. Marketers can use this information to position these parks and to develop better marketing strategies, to enable national parks to outwit their competitors. / Thesis (M.A. (Tourism))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) was established in 1997 to facilitate Transfrontier Conservation (TFCA) initiatives in the SADC region and thereby support economic development, conservation of biodiversity, as well as the promotion of regional peace and stability. To this effect, their regional planners require a thorough knowledge of the condition of areas in which the estimated actions will be carried out. To date, the PPF have used base datasets, such as land cover and population densities, in their GIS projects to support their decision making processes. However, they have realised the importance of developing rigorous methods for the extraction and generalization of biodiversity information for informed conservation decisions. The main aim of this study was, therefore, to develop a spatial framework for the generalisation and integration of data to become meaningful information that may be readily interpreted. The resultant framework represents a methodology for, firstly, identifying and, secondly, prioritizing core natural areas or units (CNU). CNUs were modelled to represent large blocks (minimum 100 km') of contiguous natural vegetation that are far from major roads and densely populated places. They were, then, ranked into three classes of importance (low, medium and high) according to an ecological value derived for each. This made the framework comprehensive in its considerations of regional biodiversity and robust enough to be used for planning at the SADC scale. By organising data and quantitative approaches logically in a robust, but rigorous, way, spatial frameworks provide the structure for combining specialized knowledge as well as scientific analysis and pragmatic politics in an effective planning process. This could guide plans which are proactive instead of reactive, visionary as well as pragmatic and well founded in research and understanding. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Peace Parks Foundation (PPF) was gestig in 1997 om oorgrens bewarings-initiatiewe in die SADC streek te fasiliteer en daardeur steun te verleen aan ekonomiese ontwikkeling, die bewaring van biodiversiteit asook die bevordering van vrede en stabiliteit in die streek. Om dit te behaal benodig die betrokke streeksbeplanners 'n grondige kennis van die toestand van die areas waarin die beoogdede aksies uitgevoer sal word. Tot op hede het die PPF basis datastelle, van byvoorbeeld landgebruik en populasie-digtheid, ingespan m hul GIS projekte om besluitnemingsprossese te ondersteun. Daar is egter besef dat dit van hoogste belang is om deeglike metodes te onwikkel vir die onttrekking van biodiversiteits-informasie sodat ingeligte besluitneming moontlik gemaak kan word. Gevolglik was die hoof oogmerk van hierdie studie om 'n ruimtelike verwysingsraamwerk te ontwikkel wat data kan veralgemeen en integreer tot betekenisvolle inligting wat geredelik interpreteerbaar is. Die daaruit-vloeiende raamwerk stel 'n metodologie voor wat Kern Natuurlike Areas (KNA) eerstens kan identifiseer en tweedens kan prioritiseer. Hierdie KNA is gemodelleer om groot blokke (minstens 100km2 ) van aaneenlopende natuurlike plantegroei, ver van hoofpaaie en dig bevolkte gebiede, voor te stel. Hulle is hieropvolgend gesorteer in drie range van belangrikheid (laag, medium en hoog) na gelang van 'n ekologiese waarde wat vir elk afgelei is. Hierdeur is die raamwerk, in terme van voldoende oorwegings teenoor streeks-biodiversiteit, omvattend gemaak en terselfdertyd robuus vir beplanning op die SADC skaal. Deur data en kwalitatiewe benaderings logies en in 'n deeglike en robuuste wyse te organiseer, bied ruimtelike verwysingsraamwerke die struktuur om gespesialiseerde kennis met wetenskaplike analise en pragmatiese politiek te kombineer in 'n effektiewe beplanningsproses. Hierdeur kan planne geformuleer word wat proaktief is instede van reaktief, visionêr sowel as pragmaties, en terselfdertyd goed gefundeer bly op navorsing en begrip.

Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Centre for Wildlife Management / unrestricted

Conflict is inevitable but sustainable development is achievable. An analysis of the mix between development and conflict in two communities revealed the imperatives needed to strike a balance between conflict and sustainable development. While conflicts over natural resources are neither a new phenomenon nor are they inevitable, it is the approaches adopted to manage them that generate interests and makes a difference between peace and violence. Thus, conflicts associated with wilderness or TFCA development initiatives such as the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (GLTP) have attracted significant interest from various stakeholders. While the GLTP is a flagship conservation initiative in Southern Africa designed to integrate different land uses for socio-economic development, it is littered with conflicts. Through documenting the experiences of two communities involved in development conflicts, a determination was sought to understand the efficacy of approaches used to manage the conflict. Using mainly questionnaires and personal interviews, perceptions and attitudes of key informants were solicited. Unresolved historical problems reincarnated to haunt current conservation projects as memories of unresolved past events reflected negatively on new related initiatives. Different approaches adopted in managing these conflicts resulted in significantly different outcomes. Local stakeholder involvements were inadequate, but were identified as pertinent to successful sustainable conservation and development. Unless local communities are assured of real benefits from new conservation initiatives it became evident that recurrent conflicts would be inevitable. The findings reveal that current conservation initiatives should be underpinned by emerging inclusivity theories in the conservation discourse. A broad range of stakeholders should embrace this new paradigm based on the philosophy that conservation efforts that exclude local communities are bound to be unsustainable. We found out that it is in the interests of all for policy makers to come up with policies that recognise the critical role local communities play, while subscribing to the regional and international standards for best practices in the conservation business.

Development, environmental sustainability, agriculture and livelihoods are dimensions that are often considered antagonistic. By thinking at the landscape level however, innovative opportunities arise for simultaneity as these entities manifest spatially and require communication across disciplines. Trans-frontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) embrace this thinking. These are large areas that cut across two or more international boundaries, include within them at least one Protected Area (PA) and other multiple resource use areas, including human dwellings and cultivated areas. Similarly, ecoagriculture is an innovative approach to land use management as it seeks to spatially synergise agriculture, livelihoods and biodiversity conservation across space and requires an awareness of landscape-level issues by land users, a condition which is not necessarily met. Such landscape thinking stems from the fact that if a piece of land is subject to rigorous conservation, it will fail if the surrounding areas are degraded. Additionally, it has been shown that agriculture often benefits from the nearby presence of natural areas for ecosystem services such as pollination, pest management, and erosion control. As such, multifunctional landscape mosaics together with small scale farmers, not large scale monocultures, are the key to global food security, as the former more effectively links agricultural intensification to hunger reduction. In order to ascertain an integrated understanding of the landscape concept, necessary for the formalisation of ecoagriculture, this study assessed the landscape perceptions and understandings held by local people residing within a TFCA. We employed participatory methods within the Mathenjwa Tribal Area (MTA), an area falling within the Lubombo TFCA and identified as holding ecoagriculture potential. Results revealed that local people perceive landscape as a function of subsistence utility. Local people perceive land-use multifunctionality, necessary for the formalisation of ecoagriculture, but at a smaller scale than expected depending on both social and biophysical interpretations. Landscape scale projects should incorporate local landscape understandings. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / MA / Unrestricted

Earlier studies investigated the genetic structure of fragmented or isolated elephant populations by comparing the genetic characteristics of pre-defined populations. This study aimed to determine if there was genetic evidence for spatial structuring in a continuous elephant population in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA-TFCA). I sequenced one mtDNA gene region for 88 individuals and genotyped 100 individuals for 10 nuclear microsatellite loci. Bayesian Clustering Algorithms incorporated in the program Geneland were used to identify groups of genetically similar individuals. An Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) determined if these groups (henceforth referred to as subpopulations) were significantly differentiated. I used a Geographic Information System (GIS) landscape genetic toolbox to identify areas in the landscape with high genetic divergence between individual samples to determine if there were identifiable genetic barriers in the landscape. There were three significantly differentiated mtDNA sub-populations (Fst = 0.787), and two nDNA sub-populations that were not significantly differentiated (Fst = -0.02; Rst = -0.045), implying obstructed mtDNA, but high nDNA gene flow across the study region. Also, gene flow was apparent between Chobe and Kafue National Parks, where telemetry data has as of yet not recorded inter-population movements between these parks. The three mtDNA sub-populations were geographically differentiated and followed political boundaries as apparent sub-populations in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The differences between mtDNA and nDNA genetic structuring may be explained by i) historical events that shaped the current genetic structure (e.g. through founder-effects and persistent poaching hotspots) and ii) intrinsic variables that influence genetic structure at a local scale (e.g. through resource dependencies and social behaviour). The KAZA elephant population has a genetic diversity (mtDNA diversity as the pairwise number of differences (π) = 2.59; nDNA diversity as the mean alleles/locus and He = 7.5, 0.71) higher than other southern African populations, and inter-population movements may be responsible for maintaining this genetic diversity. I recommend continued support for conservation initiatives that aim at maintaining and restoring connectivity between populations through landscape linkages, which in so doing may ensure inter-population gene flow and uphold the current genetic state of the KAZA-TFCA elephant population. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted