Résumé : L’immunothérapie anti-PD1 est à l’origine de résultats cliniques impressionnants dans le traitement de certains cancers comme le mélanome métastatique ou le lymphome Hodgkinien. Néanmoins, les rechutes sont fréquentes et certaines tumeurs y sont d’emblée résistantes. Par ailleurs, l’étude du complexe d’initiation de la traduction eIF4F gagne de plus en plus d’intérêt dans le domaine du cancer. En effet, eIF4F joue un rôle fondamental dans la biologie des cancers grâce au contrôle sélectif de la synthèse de protéines impliquées dans le développement tumoral.Dans cette étude, nous montrons que l’inhibition du complexe eIF4F, en plus d’avoir un effet antitumoral directe via l’inhibition de la croissance tumorale in-vitro, a une action indirecte grâce à l’inhibition de l’expression de PD-L1 sous IFN-g, évitant ainsi le blocage des lymphocytes cytotoxiques suite à l’engagement PD-1/PD-L1. Dans un modèle murin de mélanome, nous avons montré une inhibition de la croissance tumorale grâce à l’inhibition de l’expression de PD-L1, uniquement dans des souris immunocompétentes, montrant ainsi le rôle fondamental du système immunitaire. Nous avons ensuite identifié la voie de régulation de PD-L1 par eIF4F via une régulation traductionnelle de l’ARNm de STAT1, principal facteur de transcription de PD-L1 sous IFN-g.Cette étude apporte une nouvelle preuve de l’intérêt des inhibiteurs d’eIF4F dans le cancer en démontrant leur effet immunothérapeutique via l’inhibition de PD-L1, évitant ainsi l’interaction PD-1/PD-L1 qui conduit à l’échappement des tumeurs. Ces résultats ouvrent la voie vers de nouvelles stratégies dans la lutte contre le cancer. / The eukaryotic translation initiation complex eIF4F is subject of an increased interest in the field of cancer. This heterotrimeric complex, comprising the RNA helicase eIF4A, the cap-binding protein eIF4E and the scaffold protein eIF4G, is known to be more abundant and active in tumor cells than non-malignant counterparts.In a previous work, we showed that this complex is implicated in the resistance to melanoma-targeted therapies (Boussemart et al, Nature 2014). Furthermore, it is implicated in the resistance to various chemotherapies. Thus, agents targeting the eIF4F complex appear as promising tools in the field of cancer therapy.On the other hand, immunotherapy, by (re)stimulating and enhancing the host immune system against tumors is giving good clinical results in oncology treatment and appears nowadays as the most promising approach to fight cancer, especially anti-PD1 treatment. Even though immunotherapy has demonstrated remarkable results in curing some established cancers, such as advanced melanoma or Hodgkin’s lymphoma, many tumors relapse or fail to respond. It is thus important to still look for a new strategy enhancing the efficacy of actual treatments. Here, we propose to study the impact of inhibiting the eIF4F complex on the tumor-specific immune response.

The translation represents one of the most crucial processes in the cell. That is why it is often targeted by various regulations. Its initiation phase has a particularly important role in regulatory processes. Initiation of translation usually starts by recognition and binding of canonical eukaryotic initiation factor 4E1 (eIF4E1) to the methylguanosine cap present on the 5' end of the majority of eukaryotic mRNA. The family of 4E translation initiation factors contains two more members - eIF4E2 and eIF4E3. Those two proteins can bind cap structure as well which predetermines it to function in the regulation of translation. Protein eIF4E2 is well known for being a translational repressor in development processes and it takes part in specific miRNA-dependent silencing. It was proven to be able to initiate translation in hypoxia which is consistent with its proposed role in hypoxic tumor cells. The biological roles of the protein eIF4E3 are much less understood. This thesis propounds the picture of the overall functions of all discussed translation initiation factors using cell lines with their overexpression or deletion. Experimental data confirmed the role of the eIF4E2 in the regulation of developmental processes. Cell lines with deleted eIF4E2 and eIF4E3 were characterized based on the influence...

Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1) est responsable de la pandémie du SIDA (syndrome de l’immunodéficience acquise). Des souches virales résistantes aux antirétroviraux actuellement utilisés apparaissent rapidement. Il est donc important d’identifier de nouvelles cibles dans le cycle de réplication du VIH-1 pour développer de nouveaux agents contre ce virus. La traduction des protéines de structure et des enzymes du VIH-1 est une étape essentielle du cycle de réplication virale. Ces protéines sont exprimées à partir de l’ARN messager (ARNm) pleine-longueur (ARNmPL) à la fin du cycle de réplication. L’ARNmPL du VIH-1 peut utiliser un mode d’initiation de la traduction coiffe-dépendant, comme la majorité des ARNm cellulaires, mais peut aussi utiliser un mode d’initiation alternatif, car sa région 5’ non-traduite (5’UTR) contient un site interne d’entrée du ribosome (IRES), ce qui lui permet d’initier la traduction suivant un mode IRES-dépendant. L’initiation IRES-dépendante permet à l’ARNmPL d’être traduit quand l’initiation coiffe-dépendante est inhibée. L’activité de l’IRES de la région 5’UTR de l’ARNmPL du VIH-1 (IRES5’UTR) est faible dans des conditions physiologiques, mais est stimulée lorsque la cellule est arrêtée à la transition G2/M du cycle cellulaire, un arrêt qu’induit l’infection par le VIH-1. Une grande portion de l’IRES5’UTR, que nous nommons IRES5’UTRc, est présente dans tous les ARNm viraux et a une activité semblable à celle de l’ IRES5’UTR, ce qui indique que le mode IRES-dépendant peut être utilisé par tous les messagers du VIH-1. Lors de mes études doctorales, j’ai caractérisé le fonctionnement de l’IRES5’UTR du VIH-1. J’ai transfecté des cellules lymphocytaires Jurkat T, dérivées des cibles naturelles du VIH-1, avec un vecteur dual-luciférase contenant les séquences codantes des luciférases de la Renilla (Rluc) et de la luciole (Fluc) séparées par la région 5’UTR de l’ARNmPL du VIH-1. La traduction de la Rluc est coiffe-dépendante alors que celle de la Fluc dépend de l’IRES5’UTR. J’ai d’abord effectué une analyse mutationnelle et j’ai identifié trois régions qui stimulent l’activité de l’IRES5’UTR et une tige-boucle qui réprime l’activité de cet IRES, que j’ai nommée IRENE (IRES negative element). J’ai montré que l’effet répresseur d’IRENE est aboli lorsque les cellules sont soumises à un stress oxydatif, un type de stress induit lors d’une infection par le VIH-1. Nous proposons que IRENE maintiendrait l’IRES5’UTR dans une conformation peu active dans des conditions physiologiques. On sait que les IRES sont activés par divers facteurs cellulaires, appelés ITAF (IRES trans-acting factors). Nous proposons que l’IRES5’UTR adopterait une conformation active suite à la liaison d’un ITAF exprimé ou relocalisé lors d’un stress oxydatif. Ces travaux ont fait l’objet d’une publication (Gendron et al., 2011, Nucleic Acids Research, 39, 902-912). J’ai ensuite étudié l’effet de la protéine virale Tat sur l’activité de l’IRES5’UTR. En plus de son rôle essentiel dans la transactivation de la transcription des ARNm viraux, Tat stimule leur traduction coiffe-dépendante, en empêchant l’inhibition d’un facteur d’initiation canonique, eIF2, induite par la protéine kinase modulée par l’ARN double-brin (PKR) et en déroulant la structure TAR présente à l’extrémité 5’ de tous les ARNm du VIH-1. Elle affecte aussi l’expression de plusieurs gènes cellulaires. J’ai montré que les isoformes Tat86 et Tat72, mais non Tat101, stimulent l’activité de l’IRES5’UTR. Cet effet est indépendant de PKR et de TAR, mais dépendrait de la conformation de Tat. Nous proposons que Tat activerait un facteur de transcription cellulaire qui déclenche l’expression d’un ITAF de l’IRES5’UTR ou encore qu’elle activerait directement un tel ITAF. J’ai de plus montré que PKR stimule l’activité de l’IRES5’UTR, ce qui est surprenant puisque PKR est une protéine antivirale. Cet effet est indépendant de l’inhibition d’eIF2 par PKR et pourrait résulter de l’activation d’un ITAF. Sachant qu’une portion active de l’IRES5’UTR, IRES5’UTRc, est présente dans tous les ARNm viraux, notre hypothèse est que la stimulation de cet IRES par PKR permettait de traduire l’ARNm de Tat au début du cycle de réplication, ce qui permettrait ensuite la traduction coiffe-dépendante des ARNm du VIH-1, qui est stimulée par Tat. Ces travaux font l’objet d’un manuscrit (Gendron et al., soumis à RNA). Mes résultats, couplés aux données de la littérature, me conduisent à la conclusion que, à la fin du cycle de réplication du VIH-1, l’activité de l’IRES5’UTR est stimulée par le stress oxydatif, l’arrêt en G2/M et la présence de quantités élevées de Tat, alors que la traduction coiffe-dépendante est compromise. L’initiation IRES-dépendante serait alors indispensable pour que le VIH-1 traduise l’ARNmPL. L’IRES5’UTR constituerait donc une cible très intéressante pour développer des agents anti-VIH. / The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is the causative agent of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Viral strains that are resistant to antiretroviral agents used for the treatment of HIV-1 infected patients rapidly emerge. It is thus important to study the viral replication cycle in order to discover new targets for the development of novel agents against HIV-1. Translation of structural proteins and viral enzymes is a key step of the viral replication cycle. These proteins are translated from the HIV-1 full-length mRNA during late stages of the replication. This mRNA can be translated by a cap-dependent mode which is used by the majority of cellular mRNAs. However, since its 5’ untranslated region (5’UTR) contains an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) that we call IRES5’UTR, it can also be translated by an IRES-dependent mode. The IRES-dependent mode enables the full-length mRNA to be translated when the cap-dependent mode is impaired. The activity of the IRES5’UTR is weak in physiological conditions, but it is stimulated when the cell cycle is arrested at the G2/M transition, an arrest induced by HIV-1 infection. A large portion of this IRES, which we name IRES5’UTRc, is present in all HIV-1 mRNAs and its activity is similar to the activity of the complete IRES, which indicates that the IRES-dependent mode can be used by all HIV-1 mRNAs. During my doctoral studies, I investigated how the HIV-1 IRES5’UTR functions. I transfected Jurkat T cells, a lymphocytic cell line derived from the natural target cells of HIV-1, with a dual-luciferase reporter containing the coding sequences of the Renilla luciferase (Rluc) and the firefly luciferase (Fluc) separated by the complete 5’UTR of the HIV-1 full-length mRNA. Translation of Rluc is cap-dependent while translation of Fluc depends on HIV-1 IRES5’UTR. First, I performed a mutational analysis and I discovered three regions that stimulate the activity of IRES5’UTR and a stem-loop that represses its activity, which we named IRENE (IRES negative element). I showed that the repression induced by IRENE is relieved when cells are exposed to oxidative stress, a type of stress caused by HIV-1 infection. We propose that IRENE maintains the IRES5’UTR in a weakly active conformation in physiological conditions. It is known that IRESes are activated by cellular factors, called ITAFs (IRES trans-acting factors). We propose that the IRES5’UTR adopts an active conformation triggered by the binding of an ITAF that is expressed or relocalized during oxidative stress. These results generated a publication (Gendron et al. Nucleic Acids Research, 2011, 39, 902-912). I then decided to study the effect of the viral protein Tat on the IRES5’UTR activity. In addition to its essential role in the transcription of HIV-1 mRNAs, Tat stimulates the cap-dependent translation of HIV-1 mRNAs by interfering with the inhibition of a canonical initiation factor, eIF2, induced by the protein kinase modulated by double-stranded RNA (PKR) and by unwinding the TAR structure present at the 5’end of all HIV-1 mRNAs. Tat also affects the expression of several cellular genes. I showed that the Tat86 and Tat72 isoforms, but not Tat101, stimulate the activity of the IRES5’UTR. This effect is independent of PKR and TAR, but appears to be dependent upon the conformation of Tat. We suggest that Tat could activate a transcription factor that controls the expression of an ITAF of the IRES5’UTR or else that Tat could directly activate such an ITAF. I also showed that PKR stimulates the IRES5’UTR activity, which is surprising since PKR is an antiviral protein. This effect is independent of the inhibition of eIF2 by PKR and could result from the activation of an ITAF. Knowing that IRES5’UTRc, an active portion of IRES5’UTR is present in all HIV-1 RNAs, our hypothesis is that the stimulation of the IRES activity by PKR would allow Tat mRNA to be translated in the beginning of the replication cycle. This would subsequently allow the cap-dependent translation of HIV-1 mRNAs to proceed, which is stimulated by Tat. These results generated a manuscript that is submitted for publication to RNA. Altogether, my results, coupled to data from literature, lead me to conclude that, in the late phases of the replication cycle, the activity of the HIV-1 IRES5’UTR is stimulated by oxidative stress, by the cell cycle arrest in G2/M and by the presence of high amounts of Tat, while cap-dependent translation is impaired. The IRES5’UTR would thus be critical to translate the HIV-1 full-length mRNA. Consequently, the IRES5’UTR would constitute a very interesting target for the development of novel anti-HIV agents.

Translation initiation is a complex process which results in the assembly of the elongation competent 80S ribosome from the 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits, the initiator tRNA and mRNA, and is orchestrated by numerous eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs). Although it represents one of the most regulated processes of gene expression, the exact mechanism of one of the key steps of translation initiation - mRNA recruitment to the 43S pre-initiation complex (PIC) - is still only poorly understood. Recent studies indicated that besides eIF4F and poly(A)-binding protein, also eIF3 might play an important, if not crucial, role in this step. In our laboratory, we recently identified a 10 Ala substitution (Box37) in the a/TIF32 subunit of Saccharomyces cerevisiae eIF3, which interfered with translation initiation rates. Detailed analysis showed that this mutation significantly reduces the amounts of model mRNA in the gradient fractions containing 48S PICs as the only detectable effect in vivo. Moreover, a recently solved crystal structure of the N-terminal part of a/TIF32 pointed to two Box37 residues, Arg363 and Lys364, both proposed to contribute to one of the positive, potentially RNA-binding areas on the a/TIF32 surface. The fact that also their substitutions with alanines severely impaired the mRNA recruitment...

Les microARN jouent un grand rôle dans la régulation de l'expression des gènes bien que leur mécanisme d'action soit encore sujet à débat. Des premières études chez le vers C. elegans aux différents systèmes in vitro qui ont ensuite été développés, plusieurs modèles ont été proposés, comme l'inhibition de la traduction au niveau de l'initiation ou de l'élongation, et la déstabilisation du transcrit par déadénylation. Cependant, à la lumière des découvertes récentes, un consensus semble apparaître et indique que les miARN inhiberaient d'abord la traduction avant d'induire la déadénylation du transcrit, provoquant ainsi sa dégradation prématurée. D'autre part, le blocage traductionnel semble impliquer à la fois la coiffe en 5' et la queue poly(A) en 3' de l'ARNm ainsi que les facteurs qui s'y lient, c'est à dire le facteur d'initiation de la traduction eIF4F et la Poly(A) Binding Protein (PABP). Ces résultats ont conduit au modèle selon lequel, les miARN seraient capables d'empêcher la liaison entre ces deux facteurs et donc la circularisation du transcrit qui est essentielle à la fois au recrutement de la machinerie traductionnelle et à la stabilité de l'ARNm. Afin de mieux comprendre ce mécanisme, notre laboratoire a développé un système in vitro basé sur l'utilisation du lysat de réticulocytes de lapin qui permet d'étudier l'effet traductionnel des miARN en s'affranchissant de dégradation du transcrit. L'étude de l'effet de drogues et d'enzymes virales, capables de bloquer spécifiquement la fonction de chaque facteur d'initiation dans ce système, a permis de déterminer le rôle clé de eIF4G et PABP dans l'inhibition traductionnelle par les miARN. Cependant, leur interaction n'est pas requise et le blocage s'effectue plutôt au cours de l'étape de balayage de la région 5' non codante par la petite sous-unité ribosomique. En parallèle de cette étude in vitro, un travail sur des lignées cellulaires a permis de déterminer l'influence de la queue poly(A) sur l'effet miARN. De façon très surprenante, l'expression des transcrits non polyadénylés n'est plus inhibée et est même stimulée par les miARN. Cet effet est dépendant de l'association du domaine MIF4G du facteur eIF4G avec le facteur eIF3, ce qui suggère qu'en l'absence de queue poly(A), les miARN seraient capables de stimuler le recrutement de la petite sous-unité ribosomique sur l'ARNm. L'ensemble de ces résultats révèle la complexité de l'effet miARN sur la traduction et ouvre de nouvelles voies / The mechanism by which microRNAs (miRNAs) can control gene expression has been a great matter of debate. From the first studies in worm to the in vitro systems that are used today, many models have been proposed that include regulation at the level of translation or at the level of mRNA stability by controlling 3' deadenylation and decay. Recent studies provided a consensus model of all these discrepancies and suggested that translation inhibition occured first and is followed by deadenylation and further degradation of the target transcript. Moreover, translation silencing seems to occur at the initiation level, and requires eIF4F and PABP initiation factors. This led to the hypothesis that miRNAs could interfere with the interaction between these two factors thus affecting the circularisation of the mRNA, which is essential for translation efficiency. In order to gain insight into this mechanism, we have used an in vitro system based on the rabbit reticulocyte lysate that fully recapitulates miRNA effects on translation with virtually no effect on deadenylation and decay. Using this system and a wide spectrum of translational inhibitors, we have narrowed down the step of initiation at which repression is exerted and we found that miRNAs affect mainly ribosomal scanning. This effect requires the presence of both eIF4G and PABP but does not rely on their physical interaction. Further analysis of miRNA repression in cells revealed that the poly(A) tail was an absolute requirement for miRNA action. To most of our surprise, we observed that removal of the poly(A) resulted in a shift from repression to stimulation of mRNA expression. This effect seems to require the middle domain of eIF4G and the presence of the Ago proteins. Altogether, these results reveal the complexity of miRNA effect and open new prospects on translation regulation

Chez les mammifères l’initiation de la traduction et, plus particulièrement, la formation du complexe eIF4F, est principalement régulée par la protéine kinase TOR (Target of rapamycin). Cette voie de régulation fait intervenir les protéines 4E-BP (eIF4E-binding proteins) dont l’activité est modulée par la phosphorylation par TOR. Sous leur forme non-phosphorylée, les 4E-BP se lient au facteur d’initiation eIF4E, empêchent son recrutement dans le complexe eIF4F et inhibent ainsi l’initiation de la traduction. Phosphorylées par TOR, les 4E-BP perdent leur affinité pour eIF4E et sont remplacées par eIF4G ce qui active la traduction. La régulation de l’initiation de la traduction par TOR via 4E-BP a été bien décrite dans plusieurs modèles eucaryotes, tels que la levure, les insectes et les mammifères, mais reste encore obscure chez les plantes. Les recherches réalisées au cours de ma thèse ont permis l’identification de deux protéines homologues de 4E-BP chez Arabidopsis. Ces protéines, que nous avons appelées ToRP1 et ToRP2 (TOR Regulatory Proteins), sont caractérisées par la présence d’un motif consensus indispensable pour la liaison à eIF4E, et qui existe chez les protéines 4E-BP des mammifères ainsi que chez eIF4G et eIFiso4G d’Arabidopsis. La protéine ToRP1 est capable d’interagir spécifiquement avec eIF4E, mais aussi avec TOR via son extrémité N-terminale en système double-hybride de levure. ToRP1 et ToRP2 ont également été caractérisées comme étant des cibles directement phosphorylées par TOR chez Arabidopsis. Deux sérines, en position 49 et 89 dans la protéine ToRP1, ont été identifiées comme des sites potentiels de cette phosphorylation. De plus, l’état de phosphorylation de ces sites affecte l’interaction avec eIF4E en système double-hybride de levure. Par ailleurs, des plants d’Arabidopsis déficients en ToRP1 et ToRP2 renforcent la traduction strictement coiffe-dépendante de l’ARNm CYCB1;1, alors que la surexpression de ToRP1 ou de ToRP2 réprime sa traduction. Ces résultats suggèrent donc que les protéines ToRP, identifiées chez Arabidopsis, sont de nouvelles cibles directes de TOR, qui, par leur phosphorylation, régule l’initiation de la traduction coiffe-dépendante. / The target of rapamycin (TOR) is an evolutionarily conserved kinase that is a critical sensor of nutritional and cellular energy and a major regulator of cell growth. TOR controls cap-dependent translation initiation, in particular the assembly of the eIF4F complex, by modulating the activity of eIF4E-binding proteins (4E-BPs). In their unphosphorylated state 4E-BP proteins sequester eIF4E and repress translation. Upon phosphorylation by TOR, 4E-BPs have a low affinity binding to eIF4E and are replaced by eIF4G thus activating translation initiation. 4E-BPs have been discovered in yeast and mammals but remain to be obscure in plants. Here, we identified and characterized two Arabidopsis proteins termed TOR Regulatory Proteins (ToRPs 1 and 2) that display some characteristics of mammalian 4E-BPs. ToRP1 and ToRP2 contain a canonical eIF4E-binding motif (4E-BM) found in mammalian 4E-BPs and Arabidopsis eIF4G and eIFiso4G. ToRP1 interacts with eIF4E, and, surprisingly, the N-terminal HEAT domain of TOR in the yeast two-hybrid system. ToRP1 and ToRP2 are highly phosphorylated at several phosphorylation sites in TOR-dependent manner in planta. Two of these phosphorylation sites have been identified as—S49 and S89—their phosphorylation status modulates ToRP1 binding to eIF4E in the yeast two-hybrid system. In plant protoplasts, ToRP2 can function as translation repressor of mRNAs that are strictly cap-dependent. Our results suggest that ToRPs can specifically bind the Arabidopsis cap-binding proteins (eIF4E/eIFiso4E) and regulate translation initiation under the control of TOR

<p>Ribosomes are the universal ribonucleoprotein organelles that translate the genetic message from mRNA to protein. In prokaryotes, the ribosomal subunits are 30S and 50S subunit, which bind together during the translation process forming 70S ribosome. The ribosome is a highly dynamic structure, and acts as a working platform for the different factors involved in the process of converting the genetic information into protein.</p><p>Cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) is an emerging imaging technology that combines the potential of three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction at molecular resolution with a close-to-native preservation of the specimen. Here, we have applied this method to reconstruct rifampicin-treated <i>Escherichia coli</i> individual 30S subunits in vitro and in situ, and individual 50S subunits in situ. In the 30S subunit, the head, the platform and the body show large conformational movements relative to each other. The particles are grouped into three conformational groups according to the width/height ratios. Also, an S15 fusion protein derivative has been used as a physical reporter to localize S15 in the 30S subunit. In the 50S subunit, the L1 stalk, the L7/L12 stalk, the central protuberance (CP), and the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) cleft are the most dynamic and flexible parts in the reconstructed structures with clear movements indicated. Different locations of the tunnel in the central cross-sections through the in situ 50S subunits indicate a flexible pathway inside the large subunit. In addition, gross morphological changes were also been observed in our reconstructions. Our results demonstrate a considerable conformational flexibility among individual ribosomal subunits, both in vitro and in situ.</p><p>Translation is an essential process for all cells and organisms. Translation initiation is the rate-limiting step and the most highly regulated phase of translation process. Several regions along the mRNA have been reported to influence translation initiation. The Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence located 5-9 bases upstream of the initiation codon supports translation initiation by complementary binding to the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno (ASD) sequence on the 16S rRNA.</p><p>We have here compared how an SD⁺ sequence influences gene expression, if located upstream or downstream of an initiation codon. The positive effect of an upstream SD⁺ is confirmed. A downstream SD⁺ gives decreased gene expression. If an SD⁺ is placed between two potential initiation codons, initiation takes place predominantly at the second start site. The first start site is activated if the distance between this site and the downstream SD⁺ is enlarged and/or if the second start site is weakened. Upstream initiation is eliminated if a stable stem-loop structure is placed between this SD⁺ and the upstream start site. The results suggest that the two start sites compete for ribosomes that bind to an SD⁺ located between them. A minor positive contribution to upstream initiation resulting from 3’ to 5’ ribosomal diffusion along the mRNA is suggested. Since the location of SD⁺or SD-like sequences can strongly influence gene expression, this should be of significant evolutionary importance.</p>

The bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) is in many situations an ideal host for production of recombinant proteins, since it generally provides a rapid and economical means to achieve sufficiently high product quantities. However, there are several factors that may limit this host’s ability to produce large amounts of heterologous proteins in a soluble and native form. For many applications a high purity of the recombinant protein is demanded, which implies a purification strategy where the product efficiently can be isolated from the complex milieu of host cell contaminants. In this thesis, different strategies based on both rational and combinatorial genetic engineering principles have been investigated, aiming at improving and facilitating recombinant E. coli protein production and purification. One objective was to improve the PEG/salt aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) purification process of the lipase cutinase, by increasing the selectivity of the protein for the system top-phase. Peptide tags, with varying properties, were designed and genetically fused to the C-terminal end of ZZ-cutinase. Greatly increased partitioning values were observed for purified protein variants fused to tryptophan containing peptide tags, particularly a (WP)4 peptide. The partitioning properties of the ZZ-cutinase-(WP)4 protein were also retained when added to the ATPS directly from an E. coli total cell disintegrate, emphasizing the applicability of this genetic engineering strategy for primary protein purification in ATPSs. Further on, a combinatorial library approach using phage display technology was investigated as a tool for identification of peptide tags capable of improving partitioning properties of ZZ-cutinase in an ATPS. Repeated ATPS-based partitioning-selection cycles of a large phagemid (pVIII) peptide library, resulted in isolation of phage particles preferentially decorated with peptides rich in tyrosine and proline residues. Both a peptide corresponding to a phage library derived peptide sequence as well as peptides designed based on information of amino acid appearance frequencies in later selection rounds, were shown to improve partitioning several-fold when genetically fused to the C-terminal end of ZZ-cutinase. From the two- to four–fold increased production yields observed for these fusion proteins compared to ZZ-cutinase-(WP)4, it was concluded that the selection system used allowed for selection of desired peptide properties related to both partitioning and E. coli protein production parameters. Bacterial protein production is affected by several different mRNA and protein sequence-related features. Attempts to address single parameters in this respect are difficult due to the inter-dependence of many features, for example between codon optimization and mRNA secondary structure effects. Two combinatorial expression vector libraries (ExLib1 and ExLib2) were constructed using a randomization strategy that potentially could lead to variations in many of these sequence-related features and which would allow a pragmatic search of vector variants showing positive net effects on the level of soluble protein production. ExLib1 was constructed to encode all possible synonymous codons of an eight amino acid N-terminal extension of protein Z, fused to the N-terminal of an enhanced green fluorescent reporter protein (EGFP). In ExLib2, the same eight positions were randomized using an (NNG/T) degeneracy code, which could lead to various effects on both the nucleotide and protein level, through the introduction of nucleotide sequences functional as e.g. alternative ribosome binding or translation initiation sites or as translated codons for an Nterminal extension of the target protein by a peptide sequence. Flow cytometric analyses and sorting of library cell cultures resulted in isolation of clones displaying several-fold increases in whole cell fluorescence compared to a reference clone. SDS-PAGE and western blot analyses verified that this was a result of increases (up to 24-fold) in soluble intracellular ZEGFP product protein content. Both position specific codon bias effects and the appearance of new ribosomal binding sites in the library sequences were concluded to have influenced the protein production. To explore the possibility of applying the same combinatorial library strategy for improving soluble intracellular production of heterologous proteins proven difficult to express in E. coli, three proteins with either bacterial (a transcriptional regulator (DntR)) or human (progesterone receptor ligand binding domain (PRLBD) and 11-β Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type I (11-β)) origin, were cloned into the ExLib2 library. Flow cytometric sorting of libraries resulted in isolation of DntR library clones showing increased soluble protein production levels and PR-LBD library clones with up to ten-fold increases in whole cell fluorescence, although the product under these conditions co-separated with the insoluble cell material. / QC 20100623

Ribosomes are the universal ribonucleoprotein organelles that translate the genetic message from mRNA to protein. In prokaryotes, the ribosomal subunits are 30S and 50S subunit, which bind together during the translation process forming 70S ribosome. The ribosome is a highly dynamic structure, and acts as a working platform for the different factors involved in the process of converting the genetic information into protein. Cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) is an emerging imaging technology that combines the potential of three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction at molecular resolution with a close-to-native preservation of the specimen. Here, we have applied this method to reconstruct rifampicin-treated Escherichia coli individual 30S subunits in vitro and in situ, and individual 50S subunits in situ. In the 30S subunit, the head, the platform and the body show large conformational movements relative to each other. The particles are grouped into three conformational groups according to the width/height ratios. Also, an S15 fusion protein derivative has been used as a physical reporter to localize S15 in the 30S subunit. In the 50S subunit, the L1 stalk, the L7/L12 stalk, the central protuberance (CP), and the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) cleft are the most dynamic and flexible parts in the reconstructed structures with clear movements indicated. Different locations of the tunnel in the central cross-sections through the in situ 50S subunits indicate a flexible pathway inside the large subunit. In addition, gross morphological changes were also been observed in our reconstructions. Our results demonstrate a considerable conformational flexibility among individual ribosomal subunits, both in vitro and in situ. Translation is an essential process for all cells and organisms. Translation initiation is the rate-limiting step and the most highly regulated phase of translation process. Several regions along the mRNA have been reported to influence translation initiation. The Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence located 5-9 bases upstream of the initiation codon supports translation initiation by complementary binding to the Anti-Shine-Dalgarno (ASD) sequence on the 16S rRNA. We have here compared how an SD+ sequence influences gene expression, if located upstream or downstream of an initiation codon. The positive effect of an upstream SD+ is confirmed. A downstream SD+ gives decreased gene expression. If an SD+ is placed between two potential initiation codons, initiation takes place predominantly at the second start site. The first start site is activated if the distance between this site and the downstream SD+ is enlarged and/or if the second start site is weakened. Upstream initiation is eliminated if a stable stem-loop structure is placed between this SD+ and the upstream start site. The results suggest that the two start sites compete for ribosomes that bind to an SD+ located between them. A minor positive contribution to upstream initiation resulting from 3’ to 5’ ribosomal diffusion along the mRNA is suggested. Since the location of SD+ or SD-like sequences can strongly influence gene expression, this should be of significant evolutionary importance.

Deoxyhypusine synthase (DHS) catalyzes the first step in the hypusination of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A). In human cells, two eIF5A isoforms are present, eIF5A-1 and eIF5A-2, and DHS catalyzes the hypusination of both. Since both eIF5As are substrates for DHS, the biological functions of DHS are likely to be exerted through the various post-translational forms of these two eIF5As. The lysine form of eIF5A-1 has been associated with apoptosis, while the hypusinated form of eIF5A-1 has been associated with cell viability and proliferation. eIF5A-2 has been found to be over-expressed in certain cancers and has been proposed to function as an oncogene. Dhs is also over-expressed in certain human cancers and is a metastatic signature gene. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of DHS in cancer cell invasiveness, cell proliferation, and apoptosis using RNA interference. The main finding of the study is that DHS siRNA treatment decreases invasiveness of PC3 cells in vitro. Both DHS 0 siRNA treatment and DHS 1/b siRNA treatment significantly reduced cell invasiveness of PC3 cells as measured by the Matrigel invasion assay. Potential confounding variables, such as differences in cell proliferation or differences in apoptosis in response to DHS siRNA treatment, were assessed using the XTT cell proliferation assay and the Annexin V/Pi apoptosis assay, and they were found not to have an effect. In the absence of serum, DHS siRNA treatment did not result in significant decrease in cell proliferation compared to the control siRNA treatment. Furthermore, DHS siRNA treatment did not induce apoptosis in PC3 cells under the present experimental conditions. In conclusion, depletion of DHS with RNAi reduces invasiveness, but does not induce apoptosis in PC3 cells. The significance of the research is that the anti-invasiveness effect of DHS depletion in metastatic cancer cells is shown for the first time in the present study. Thus, DHS depletion may be useful to combat cancer in conjunction with L-eIF5A-1 over-expression.