Clean and affordable energy, especially solar energy, is becoming more and more important as our annual total energy consumption keeps rising. However, to make solar energy more affordable and accessible, the cost for fabrication, transportation and assembly of all components need to be reduced. As a crucial component for solar cells, transparent conductive electrode (TCE) can determine the cost and performance. A light weight, easy-to-fabricate and cost-effective new generation TCE is thus needed. While indium-doped tin oxide (ITO) has been the most widely used material for commercial applications as TCEs, its cost has gone up due to the limited global supply of indium. This is not only due to the scarcity of the element itself, but also the massive production of various opto-electronic devices such as TVs, smartphones and tablets. In order to reduce the cost for fabricating large area solar cells, substitute materials for ITO should be developed. These materials should have similar optical transmittance in the visible wavelength range, as well as similar electrical conductivity (sheet resistance) to ITO. This work starts with synthesizing ITO-replacing nano-materials, such as copper nanowires (CuNWs), derivative zinc oxide (ZnO) thin films, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and so on. Further, we applied various deposition techniques, including spin-coating, spray-coating, Mayer-rod coating, filtration and transferring, to coat transparent substrates with these materials in order to fabricate TCEs. We characterize these materials and analyze their electrical/optical properties as TCEs. Additionally, these fabricated single-material-based TCEs were tested in various lab conditions, and their shortcomings (instability, rigidity, etc.) were highlighted. In order to address these issues, we hybridized the different materials to combine their strengths and compared the properties to single-material based TCEs. The multiple hybridized TCEs have comparable optical/electrical metrics to ITO. The doped-ZnO TCEs exhibit high optical transmittance over 90% in the visible range and low sheet resistance under 200Ω/sq. For CuNW-based composite electrodes, ~ 85% optical transmittance and ~ 25Ω/sq were observed. Meanwhile, the hybridization of materials adds additional features such as flexibility or resistance to corrosion. Finally, as a proof of concept, the CuNW-based composite TCEs were tested in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), showing similar performance to ITO based samples.

Metal oxides are a very important class of materials with a wide range of photovoltaic applications. Transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) are the primary front contact materials used in thin film solar cells. Identification of methods for reducing the resistivity of these materials would have significant benefits. Development of p-type TCOs would provide alternative back contact materials and could enable further development of technologies such as bifacial, window and multijunction cells. A series of studies into these areas is presented in this work. Aluminium doped zinc oxide (AZO) is a well-known n-type TCO consisting entirely of Earth-abundant materials. Targets were manufactured from AZO powder, which was synthesised using a patented emulsion detonation process developed by Innovnano S.A. All films showed good optical transmission. Resistivity was found to decrease with both increasing time and temperature up to 300 degree C. Temperatures above 300 degree C were found to be detrimental to film formation, with increasing amounts of damage to the crystal structure and consequent increases in the resistivity. The effect of alloying molybdenum oxide with molybdenum nitride through reactive sputtering in a mixed oxygen-nitrogen atmosphere was investigated. All alloys were found to show p-type behaviour. Resistivity was found to improve with increased nitrogen content, in contrast to optical transmission, which reduced. A selection of compositions were deposited onto CdTe cells as back contacts. These cells showed an increase in efficiency with increasing nitrogen content. Work function was found to increase with increasing oxygen content, but all work functions were low. Resistivity was shown to correlate strongly with efficiency, caused by a corresponding increase in cell voltage. This implies that to form an ohmic contact on CdTe with p-type materials, work function may be less important than resistivity. The copper oxides are p-type, but uses are limited by the narrow band gaps. Cupric oxide was chosen for investigation and for alloying with other oxides with the aim of increasing the band gap. It was found that temperature and deposition environment have significant impacts on sputtered cupric oxide (CuO) films, with low temperatures and high oxygen environments producing the lowest resistivities. Extrinsic sodium doping was found to reduce the resistivity by up to four orders of magnitude. High oxygen content sodium-doped films were found to have carrier concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than that of indium tin oxide.

There are a number of “smart” coatings that can be applied to glass. These include self-cleaning coatings based on titanium dioxide, and low-E coatings based on fluorine-doped tin oxide. Products are often more desirable with colour options such as Pilkington Activ BlueTM. There are currently no alternatives to body tinting glass to achieve colour, which is a time-consuming and expensive procedure. The work in this project details a number of coloured coatings via the AACVD or combustion processing of metal nitrate/urea precursors.

Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist neben der Synthese von Sol-Gel-Funktionsschichten auf der Basis von transparent leitfähigen Oxiden (transparent conducting oxides, TCOs) die umfassende infrarotoptische und elektrische Charakterisierung sowie Modellierung dieser Schichten. Es wurden sowohl über klassische Sol-Gel-Prozesse als auch über redispergierte Nanopartikel-Sole spektralselektive Funktionsschichten auf Glas- und Polycarbonat-Substraten appliziert, die einen möglichst hohen Reflexionsgrad im infraroten Spektralbereich und damit einhergehend einen möglichst geringen Gesamtemissionsgrad sowie einen niedrigen elektrischen Flächenwiderstand aufweisen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden dotierte Metalloxide, nämlich einerseits Zinn-dotiertes Indiumoxid (tin doped indium oxide, ITO) und andererseits Aluminium-dotiertes Zinkoxid (aluminum doped zinc oxide, AZO)verwendet. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden vertieft verschiedene Parameter untersucht, die bei der Präparation von niedrigemittierenden ITO- und AZO-Funktionsschichten im Hinblick auf die Optimierung ihrer infrarot-optischen und elektrischen Eigenschaften sowie ihrer Transmission im sichtbaren Spektralbereich von Bedeutung sind. Neben der Sol-Zusammensetzung von klassischen Sol-Gel-ITO-Beschichtungslösungen wurden auch die Beschichtungs- und Ausheizparameter bei der Herstellung von klassischen Sol-Gel-ITO- sowie -AZO-Funktionsschichten charakterisiert und optimiert. Bei den klassischen Sol-Gel- ITO-Funktionsschichten konnte als ein wesentliches Ergebnis der Arbeit der Gesamtemissionsgrad um 0.18 auf 0.17, bei in etwa gleichbleibenden visuellen Transmissionsgraden und elektrischen Flächenwiderständen, reduziert werden, wenn anstelle von (optimierten) Mehrfach-Beschichtungen Einfach-Beschichtungen mit einer schnelleren Ziehgeschwindigkeit anhand des Dip-Coating-Verfahrens hergestellt wurden. Mit einer klassischen Sol-Gel-ITO-Einfach-Beschichtung, die mit einer deutlich erhöhten Ziehgeschwindigkeit von 600 mm/min gedippt wurde, konnte mit einem Wert von 0.17 der kleinste Gesamtemissionsgrad dieser Arbeit erzielt werden. Die Gesamtemissionsgrade und elektrischen Flächenwiderstände von klassischen Sol-Gel-AZOFunktionsschichten konnten mit dem in dieser Arbeit optimierten Endheizprozess deutlich gesenkt werden. Bei Neunfach-AZO-Beschichtungen konnten der Gesamtemissionsgrad um 0.34 auf 0.50 und der elektrische Flächenwiderstand um knapp 89 % auf 65 Ω/sq verringert werden. Anhand von Hall-Messungen konnte darüber hinaus nachgewiesen werden, dass mit dem optimierten Endheizprozess, der eine erhöhte Temperatur während der Reduzierung der Schichten aufweist, mit N = 4.3·1019 cm-3 eine etwa doppelt so hohe Ladungsträgerdichte und mit µ = 18.7 cm2/Vs eine etwa drei Mal so große Beweglichkeit in den Schichten generiert wurden, im Vergleich zu jenen Schichten, die nach dem alten Endheizprozess ausgehärtet wurden. Das deutet darauf hin, dass bei dem optimierten Heizschema sowohl mehr Sauerstofffehlstellen und damit eine höhere Ladungsträgerdichte als auch Funktionsschichten mit einem höheren Kristallisationsgrad und damit einhergehend einer höheren Beweglichkeit ausgebildet werden. Ein Großteil der vorliegenden Arbeit behandelt die Optimierung und Charakterisierung von ITO-Nanopartikel-Solen bzw. -Funktionsschichten. Neben den verwendeten Nanopartikeln, dem Dispergierungsprozess, der Beschichtungsart sowie der jeweiligen Beschichtungsparameter und der Nachbehandlung der Funktionsschichten, wurde erstmals in einer ausführlichen Parameterstudie die Sol-Zusammensetzung im Hinblick auf die Optimierung der infrarot-optischen und elektrischen Eigenschaften der applizierten Funktionsschichten untersucht. Dabei wurde insbesondere der Einfluss der verwendeten Stabilisatoren sowie der verwendeten Lösungsmittel auf die Schichteigenschaften charakterisiert. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird dargelegt, dass die exakte Zusammensetzung der Nanopartikel-Sole einen große Rolle spielt und die Wahl des verwendeten Lösungsmittels im Sol einen größeren Einfluss auf den Gesamtemissionsgrad und die elektrischen Flächenwiderstände der applizierten Schichten hat als die Wahl des verwendeten Stabilisators. Allerdings wird auch gezeigt, dass keine pauschalen Aussagen darüber getroffen werden können, welcher Stabilisator oder welches Lösungsmittel in den Nanopartikel-Solen zu Funktionsschichten mit kleinen Gesamtemissionsgraden und elektrischen Flächenwiderständen führt. Stattdessen muss jede einzelne Kombination von verwendetem Stabilisator und Lösungsmittel empirisch getestet werden, da jede Kombination zu Funktionsschichten mit anderen Eigenschaften führt. Zudem konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit erstmals stabile AZO-Nanopartikel-Sole über verschiedene Rezepte hergestellt werden. Neben der Optimierung und Charakterisierung von ITO- und AZO- klassischen Sol-Gel- sowie Nanopartikel-Solen und -Funktionsschichten wurden auch die infrarot-optischen Eigenschaften dieser Schichten modelliert, um die optischen Konstanten sowie die Schichtdicken zu bestimmen. Darüber hinaus wurden auch kommerziell erhältliche, gesputterte ITO- und AZO-Funktionsschichten modelliert. Die Reflexionsgrade dieser drei Funktionsschicht-Typen wurden einerseits ausschließlich mit dem Drude-Modell anhand eines selbstgeschriebenen Programmes in Sage modelliert, und andererseits mit einem komplexeren Fit-Modell, welches in der kommerziellen Software SCOUT aus dem erweiterten Drude-Modell, einem Kim-Oszillator sowie dem OJL-Modell aufgebaut wurde. In diesem Fit-Modell werden auch die Einflüsse der Glas-Substrate auf die Reflexionsgrade der applizierten Funktionsschichten berücksichtigt und es können die optischen Konstanten sowie die Dicken der Schichten ermittelt werden. Darüber hinaus wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ein Ellipsometer installiert und geeignete Fit-Modelle entwickelt, anhand derer die Ellipsometer-Messungen ausgewertet und die optischen Konstanten sowie Schichtdicken der präparierten Schichten bestimmt werden können. / The aim of this thesis is on the one hand the synthesis of sol-gel functional layers on the basis of transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) and on the other hand a comprehensive infrared-optical and electrical characterization as well as modeling of these layers. Spectrally selective coatings have been prepared with the classical sol-gel route as well as with redispersed nanoparticle sols on glass and polycarbonate substrates and these coatings should have a reflectance in the infrared spectral range which is as high as possible and therefore a total emittance and an electrical sheet resistance which are as small as possible. For this purpose tin doped indium oxide (ITO) and aluminum doped zinc oxide (AZO) have been used as doped metal oxides. Within this thesis several parameters have been investigated in-depth which play a decisive role in the preparation of ITO and AZO low emissivity coatings, in order to prepare such coatings with optimized infrared-optical and electrical properties as well as visual transmittances. Besides the composition of the classical sol-gel ITO coating solutions, also the parameters of the coating as well as the heating processes have been characterized and optimized in the manufacture of classical sol-gel ITO and AZO functional layers. As a significant result the total emittance of classical sol-gel ITO functional layers could be reduced by 0.18 to 0.17 while the visual transmittance and electrical sheet resistances stay approximately the same, if just one-layered coatings are applied with a higher withdrawal speed with the dip coating technique instead of (optimized) multi-layered coatings. With a classical sol-gel ITO single coating, which has been produced with a withdrawal speed of 600 mm/min, the smallest total emittance of this work could be realized with 0.17. The total emittances and electrical sheet resistances of classical sol-gel AZO functional layers were reduced drastically in this work by using the optimized final heating process. The total emittance could be reduced by 0.34 to 0.50 and the electrical sheet resistance by 89 % to 65Ω/sq with a coating which consists of nine single layers. On the basis of Hall measurements it has been shown that coatings which were treated with the optimized heating process (which exhibits a higher temperature during the reducing treatment of the coatings) show a higher charge carrier density as well as a higher mobility than those coatings treated with the old heating process. With the optimized heating process the ninelayered coatings exhibit a charge carrier density of N = 4.3·1019 cm-3 which is approximately twice as high and a mobility of µ = 18.7 cm2/Vs which is about three times higher than the values of coatings which have been heated with the old process. This indicates that with the optimized heating process more oxygen vacancies and, associated therewith a higher charge carrier density as well as a higher crystallinity of the layer and thus a higher mobility are generated. One focus of the presented work lies on the optimization and characterization of ITO redispersed nanoparticle sols and functional layers respectively. In addition to the used nanoparticles, the dispersion process, the coating type with the respective coating parameters and post-treatments of the functional layers also a detailed parameter study has been done. This parameter study examined the composition of the nanoparticle sols with a view to the optimization of the infrared-optical and electrical properties of the applied coatings. The coating properties have been studied in particularly with regard to the influence of the used stabilizers and solvents respectively. In this work it will be shown, that the accurate composition of the nanoparticle sols plays a decisive role and the choice of the used solvents has a bigger impact on the coating properties than the choice of the used stabilizers. However, it will also be shown, that no general statements can be made which stabilizers or which solvents within the sols lead to coatings which have small total emittances and small electrical sheet resistances. Instead each combination of used stabilizer and used solvent has to be empirically tested since each combination leads to coatings with different properties. Furthermore stable AZO nanoparticle sols based on several formulas have been developed for the first time. Besides the optimization and characterization of ITO and AZO classical sol-gel as well as nanoparticle sols and functional layers, also the infrared-optical properties of these coatings have been modeled in order to determine the optical constants as well as the coating thicknesses. Furthermore also commercially available sputtered ITO and AZO coatings have been modeled. The reflectances of these three types of coatings have been modeled on the one hand by using only the Drude model within a self-written program in the software Sage. On the other hand these coatings have been modeled with more complex fitting models within the commercially available software called SCOUT. These more complex fitting models consist of the extended Drude model, a Kim oscillator and an OJL model and they also take the influence of the glass substrates on the reflectances of the applied coatings into account. By using these fitting models, the optical constants of the applied coatings and the coating thicknesses can be obtained. In addition an Ellipsometer has been installed as part of this work and suitable fitting models have been developed. These models can be used for analyzing the Ellipsometer measurements in order to determine the optical constants and the coating thicknesses of the coatings applied.

Single crystals with composition Lu3Al5O12 were synthesized using Czochralski and micro-pulling-down melt growth techniques. Polycrystalline ceramics of the same composition were synthesized by vacuum annealing of powders prereacted using a citrate-nitrate combustion technique and by spark-plasma-sintering of powders prereacted using a flame-spray-pyrolysis technique. Single crystals and polycrystalline ceramics are activated with Ce3+ or Pr3+ or doubly activated with Ce3+ and Tb3+ ions. Cerium-doped Czochralski-grown single crystals were compared to cerium-terbium codoped Czochralski-grown and micro-pulling down single crystals. Cerium-terbium codoped single crystals are also compared to similarly-activated polycrystalline ceramics sintered under vacuum using combustion-synthesized prereacted powders. X-ray diffraction analysis and fluorescence characterization were used to determine successful formation of single-phase LuAG and successful incorporation of doping species. Absorbance, fluorescence, radioluminescence, and scintillation decay analyses were used to compare synthesis processes and activator selection.

This thesis deals with the development of the competence tocreate assembly efficient products. The assembly-relatedknowledge that is resident within an organisation is ofinestimable value and should be used, refined and developed inorder to obtain assembly efficient products. The question ishow competence development can be promoted organisationally.This thesis has adopted the working hypothesis thatmodularisation promotes competence in the development ofassembly efficient products. This position is based on theliterature regarding competence development,competence-promoting organisations, and concurrentengineering. The empirical research reported in this thesis is along-term case study carried out at Volvo Car Corporation. Inthe licentiate thesis that preceded this doctoral thesis, itwas suggested that assembly work should be based on modules.The further topics researched in this thesis includeexamination of a modularisation process, examination of thecommunication interface between the assembly organisation andthe product development organisation, the effects ofmodularisation on the assembly process, and an investigation ofthe development of two assembly efficient products. The product of the research is a model representing theorganisational prerequisites for developing competence in thecreation of assembly efficient products. The key elements inthe model are a transparent organisational structure, clearintention in the organisation, and accommodation ofcross-functional exchange. Modularisation is a means ofcreating a transparent organisational structure that makes itpossible for members of the organisation to understand thecontext in which they work, which is a basic requirement fordeveloping competence. A structure for cross-functionalcooperation should be put in place to facilitatecross-functional exchange and learning. To succeed indeveloping assembly efficient products, an organisation mustalso clear signal that this is its intention. Visions, goalsand strategies must express this ambition. Only then will themembers of the organisation have the mindset that enables themto use their full potential to develop competence in creatingassembly efficient products. <b>Keywords:</b>competence-promoting organisation, transparentorganisation, modularisation, assembly efficiency, automobileindustry

In this thesis, we investigate the synthesis of CuAlO2 on sapphire (0001) substrate by rapid thermal annealing of an Al2O3/Cu2O/sapphire structure above 1000oC. We examine the effects of growth conditions on the structural, formation mechanism, and optical and electrical properties of CuAlO2 thin film. The film prepared at 1100 oC in air was with epitaxial structure as verified by X-ray diffraction methods. Gas ambient, temperature ramp rate and reaction temperature are crucial parameters for the formation of CuAlO2 film. We found that single-phase CuAlO2 thin films formed in air ambient by a rapid temperature ramp rate above 1000oC. A slow temperature ramp rate and a pure oxygen ambient might lead to the appearance of second phase such as CuAl2O4. Optical gap of our films were determined to be 3.75 eV. Optical transmittance depended on the temperature of thin film reaction. The best transmittance obtained was 60 % by annealing at 1100 oC in air. Photoluminescence and cathodoluminescence measurements showed that the two peaks obtained are around 3.4 eV and 1.8 eV corresponding to UV and red emission. As a result of CuAlO2 has an indirect gap about 1.8 eV. The electrical conductivity of the film related to the oxygen content was investigated by the annealing experiments in oxygen-deficient (vacuum) and oxygen-excess (air) ambient. The sheet resistance of CuAlO2 increases consistently with an increase in the duration of the vacuum annealing. Further annealing in air restores the sheet resistance to the original value. The highest conductivity obtained in this work was 0.57 S/cm. Metal contacts to CuAlO2 were also studied in this work. The current-voltage characteristics showed that Cu, Al, Ni or Au could form Ohmic contact to CuAlO2. The lowest contact resistance was using Al metal. However, when the contacts were post-annealed above 300oC, the contact resistance was increased.

<p>Denna rapport behandlar hur aggregattabeller kan administreras av lagrade procedurer i en databasserver. Målet är att skapa en parser som kan hantera aggregattabeller transparent för de applikationer som använder databasen. För att kunna uppfylla transparens måste denna parsern kunna dra slutsatser om databasstrukturen. Genom att identifiera nödvändig metadata och sedan placera den i ett repository, kan parsern dra sådana slutsatser. Identifiering redovisas i rapporten genom en metadatastudie, vilken ligger till grund för metodens genomförande. I rapporten diskuteras olika metoder för att uppnå en transparent lösning. Den metod som sedan implementeras, är en lagrad procedur. I rapporten dras slutsatsen att det är möjligt att skapa en lagrad procedur i databasservern, som kan utföra de uppgifter som krävs för att hantera aggregattabeller på ett transparent sett.</p>

<p>This thesis deals with the development of the competence tocreate assembly efficient products. The assembly-relatedknowledge that is resident within an organisation is ofinestimable value and should be used, refined and developed inorder to obtain assembly efficient products. The question ishow competence development can be promoted organisationally.This thesis has adopted the working hypothesis thatmodularisation promotes competence in the development ofassembly efficient products. This position is based on theliterature regarding competence development,competence-promoting organisations, and concurrentengineering.</p><p>The empirical research reported in this thesis is along-term case study carried out at Volvo Car Corporation. Inthe licentiate thesis that preceded this doctoral thesis, itwas suggested that assembly work should be based on modules.The further topics researched in this thesis includeexamination of a modularisation process, examination of thecommunication interface between the assembly organisation andthe product development organisation, the effects ofmodularisation on the assembly process, and an investigation ofthe development of two assembly efficient products.</p><p>The product of the research is a model representing theorganisational prerequisites for developing competence in thecreation of assembly efficient products. The key elements inthe model are a transparent organisational structure, clearintention in the organisation, and accommodation ofcross-functional exchange. Modularisation is a means ofcreating a transparent organisational structure that makes itpossible for members of the organisation to understand thecontext in which they work, which is a basic requirement fordeveloping competence. A structure for cross-functionalcooperation should be put in place to facilitatecross-functional exchange and learning. To succeed indeveloping assembly efficient products, an organisation mustalso clear signal that this is its intention. Visions, goalsand strategies must express this ambition. Only then will themembers of the organisation have the mindset that enables themto use their full potential to develop competence in creatingassembly efficient products.</p><p><b>Keywords:</b>competence-promoting organisation, transparentorganisation, modularisation, assembly efficiency, automobileindustry</p>

Single crystals with composition Lu3Al5O12 were synthesized using Czochralski and micro-pulling-down melt growth techniques. Polycrystalline ceramics of the same composition were synthesized by vacuum annealing of powders prereacted using a citrate-nitrate combustion technique and by spark-plasma-sintering of powders prereacted using a flame-spray-pyrolysis technique. Single crystals and polycrystalline ceramics are activated with Ce3+ or Pr3+ or doubly activated with Ce3+ and Tb3+ ions. Cerium-doped Czochralski-grown single crystals were compared to cerium-terbium codoped Czochralski-grown and micro-pulling down single crystals. Cerium-terbium codoped single crystals are also compared to similarly-activated polycrystalline ceramics sintered under vacuum using combustion-synthesized prereacted powders. X-ray diffraction analysis and fluorescence characterization were used to determine successful formation of single-phase LuAG and successful incorporation of doping species. Absorbance, fluorescence, radioluminescence, and scintillation decay analyses were used to compare synthesis processes and activator selection.