Für die montanen Regionen kontinental Südostasiens (Südwest China, Laos, Kambodscha, Myanmar, Nordost Thailand, Nordwest Vietnam) gibt es nur wenig Informationen über die organische Bodensubstanz (OBS) und ihre Beeinflussung durch Landnutzung, Bewirtschaftung und biophysikalische Eigenschaften. Zum Beispiel ist trotz großflächiger Entwaldung zu Gunsten von Kautschukplantagen der Einfluss dieser Landnutzungsänderung auf OBS Vorräte kaum bekannt. Auch wurde der Einfluss der Terrassierung, wie sie für den Kautschukanbau in montanen Regionen üblich ist, auf die Dynamik der OBS bislang nicht untersucht. Des Weiteren liegen nur begrenzt Informationen über die räumliche Verteilung von OBS Vorräten und die Rolle potentieller Regulationsfaktoren wie Landnutzung, Vegetation, Bodentextur und Topographie vor. Die vorliegende Arbeit zielte auf die genannten Wissenslücken und präsentiert in diesem Kontext drei Studien aus der montanen Region Xishuangannas, Süd Yunnan, China. In den ersten beiden, in einer tropischen Landschaft durchgeführten Studien, habe ich die Änderung des OBS Vorrats durch 1) die Umwandlung von Sekundärwald in Kautschukplantagen und 2) durch den Bau von Terrassen, quantifiziert. Um in der ersten Studie Landnutzungseffekte auf die OBS-Vorräte zu quantifizieren, habe ich den Ansatz der unechten Zeitreihe (space-for-time substitution) genutzt. Ich habe 11 terrassierte Kautschukplantagen im Alter von 5 bis 46 Jahren sowie sieben Sekundärwaldparzellen untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Umwandlung von Sekundärwald in Kautschukplantagen eine Abnahme der OBS Vorräte von 37.4 Mg C ha-1 im Bereich bis zu einer Tiefe von 1.2 m hervorrief; diese Abnahme entsprach 19% des ursprünglichen OBS Vorrats im Sekundärwald. Im Oberboden nahm der OBS Vorrat exponentiell ab; in den ersten 5 Jahren nach der Landnutzungsänderung war die Abnahme am stärksten, nach ca. 20 Jahren hat sich ein Gleichgewicht eingestellt. Der mittlere OBS-Verlust von 37.4 Mg C ha-1 war viel höher als literaturbasierte Schätzwerte für Änderungen der oberirdischen Kohlenstoffvorräte, welche zwischen einem Verlust von 18 Mg C ha-1 und einer Steigerung von 8 Mg C ha-1 liegen. Im Gegensatz zur IPCC tier 1-Methode, die davon ausgeht, dass OBS Vorratsänderungen bei einer Umwandlung von Wald zu Kautschuk gleich 0 sind, zeigen meine Ergebnisse, dass OBS-Verluste in Betracht gezogen werden müssen, um potentiell große Fehler bei der Schätzung von Kohlenstoffflüssen von Ökosystemen zu vermeiden. Terrassierte Kautschukplantage bestehen aus schmalen Terrassen mit einer Baumreihe, die sich mit ursprünglichen geneigten Flächen abwechseln. Bei der Konstruktion der Terrassen wird Boden vom Hang abgetragen, und so eine innere Kante der Terrasse entsteht (Entnahmebereich); der entfernte Boden wird dann auf den Hang unterhalb der Grabungsfläche aufgehäuft und bildet die äußere Kante der Terrasse (Ablagebereich). Die zweite Studie untersucht den Einfluss der Terrassierung auf OBS Vorräte in 5, 29 und 44 Jahre alten Plantagen. In jeder Plantage habe ich die Terrassen systematisch in den verschiedenen Bodenverteilungszonen beprobt, die ursprünglichen Hangflächen zwischen den Terrassen diente als Referenz. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigten, dass die Terrassierung die OBS Vorräte der 5 Jahre alten Plantage nicht beeinflusst hat. In den 29 und 44 Jahre alten Plantagen wurden jedoch in 0-1.2 m Tiefe höhere OBS Vorräte auf den Terrassen als auf den Referenzflächen beobachtet. Der positive Effekt der Terrassierung auf die OBS Vorräte in den beiden älteren Plantagen wurde auf die Erholung des OBS Vorrats im freiliegenden Oberboden des Entnahmebereichs, und die teilweise Erhaltung von OBS im begrabenen Boden des Ablagebereichs erklärt. Die Erholung der OBS Vorräte im Entnahmebereichen konnte durch die Aufnahme neuer OBS des freiliegenden Unterbodens in Form von Wurzeln und Laubfall sowie durch die Sedimentation von erodiertem Oberbodenmaterial des Oberhangs erklärt werden. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass Terrassierung die Verluste von OBS verringern kann; ohne die Anlage von Terrassen könnte der Verlust von OBS durch die Umwandlung von Wald zu Kautschukplantagen größer sein. In der dritten Studie, durchgeführt in einer subtropischen Landschaft, habe ich die aktuellen OBS Vorräte pro dominanter Landnutzung quantifiziert und die Beziehungen zwischen OBS und Landnutzung, sowie Vegetation, Bodentextur und Topographie untersucht. In einem 10.000 Hektar großen Gebiet habe ich 28 ein Hektar große Probeflächen in Wäldern mit geschlossenem und offenem Kronendach, Teeplantagen und Buschland ausgewählt. Die OBS-Vorräte in einer Tiefe von 0-0.9 m waren unter den höchsten der Region: 228.6 ± 19.7 (SE) Mg C ha-1 in Wäldern mit geschlossenem Kronendach, 200.4 ± 15.5 Mg C ha-1 in Wäldern mit offenem Kronendach, 197.5 ± 25.9 Mg C ha-1 in Teeplantagen und 236.2 ± 13.7 Mg C ha-1 im Buschland. OBS Konzentrationen und Vorräte unterschieden sich nicht signifikant zwischen den Landnutzungstypen. Mehr als 50% der gesamten Varianz der OBS wurde innerhalb der ein Hektar großen Flächen beobachtet und war abhängig von der Variabilität der Grundfläche der Bäume, Kohlenstoffvorrat der Streuauflage und der Geländeneigung. Diese Ergebnisse illustrieren die Bedeutung lokaler Prozesse auf die Variabilität von OBS Vorräten in einer montanen Landschaft. Die Ergebnisse aller drei hier vorgestellten Studien tragen zu einem besseren Verständnis von OBS Vorräten und deren Dynamik in einer schnellen Änderungsprozessen ausgesetzten Region bei. Darüber hinaus bilden sie eine potentielle Grundlage für weitere Studien über Änderungen von Ökosystemdienstleistungen in montanen Regionen des kontinentalen Südostasiens.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este estudo teve como objetivo estimar a riqueza e a diversidade arbórea em áreas de savana natural e em áreas convertidas em monocultivos de Acacia mangium na Amazônia Setentrional. Todas as plantas com diâmetro de base maior ou igual a 2 cm foram medidas em 25 parcelas longas e estreitas (250m x 2m) de 0,05 hectares distribuídas em uma área de 190 km2, sendo 8 parcelas em áreas de savana e 17 em plantios. Foram amostrados 1365 indivíduos de espécies arbóreas e arbustivas, sendo 829 indivíduos de A. mangium (60,7%) e 536 indivíduos (39,2%) de espécies nativas. No total, foram registradas 62 espécies arbóreas e arbustivas, sendo 8 espécies típicas de savana (12,9% do total de espécies), 34 espécies florestais (54,9%) e 20 espécies (32,2%) consideradas generalistas, por ocorrerem tanto em savana como em floresta. A maioria das espécies de savana (7) foram encontradas nos plantios de A. mangium, sugerindo que o tempo de estabelecimento dos plantios ainda não atingiu um limite de alterações microclimáticas para excluir todas as espécies de savana. Apenas a riqueza e a diversidade de espécies arbóreas florestais foram relacionadas positivamente com a área basal e a idade dos plantios de A. mangium, indicando que a exclusão do fogo e alterações microclimáticas estão propiciando mudanças abruptas na composição de espécies na área. A distância mais próxima às áreas nativas (floresta e savana) não explicou as variações de riqueza e diversidade de espécies arbóreas encontradas nos plantios. A conversão da savana em plantios florestais de A. mangium causa alterações bruscas na composição de espécies, propiciando a entrada de espécies arbóreas em áreas antes ocupadas por espécies de savana. Os resultados apresentados não permitem afirmar que os plantios florestais podem servir como áreas complementares para conservação da biodiversidade das savanas, tendo em vista as alterações causadas na composição de espécies. Futuros estudos devem focar em outros importantes componentes da biodiversidade das savanas amazônicas como ervas e gramíneas e sobre o efeito da permeabilidade e conectividade da paisagem. / This study aimed to estimate tree species richness and diversity in natural savannas and savannas converted to Acacia mangium plantations in northern Amazonia. All trees with base diameter greater than or equal to 2 cm were measured and identified using thin and long (250m x 2m) plots of 0.05 hectares (8 plots in savannas and 17 plots in Acacia plantations). We found 1365 individuals, 829 (60.7%) of which were of A. mangium, and the remaining 536 (39.2%) from native species. Typical savanna trees were represented by eight species (12.9%), while 34 species (54.9%) were forest species and 20 (32.2%) were habitat generalists. Most savanna species (7) were found in the understory of plantations. Only richness and diversity of forest species were positively related to plantations age and basal area, indicating that possibly fire exclusion and microclimatic changes are favoring the establishment of forest species in the plantation understory. The nearest distance from native forest and/or savanna patch did not explain the variation in richness and diversity of tree species found in the plantations. In conclusion, tree plantation promoted a deep change in species composition in the area, allowing the entrance of tree species not found before in local savannas. Although several savanna species were found in plantations, the results are not conclusive regarding a complementary role of forest plantations for conservation of savanna woody species in northern Amazonia. Future studies should focus on other components of biodiversity such as herbs and grasses and in determining the effects of connectivity and permeability of this landscape.

<p><strong>Background</strong></p><p>This thesis is conducted for Husqvarna AB with the aim to map the Laotian market for them in terms of market potential for forestry power equipment. In order to provide decision material for further action I was asked to give a description of the Laotian forestry sector; research potential harvesting volumes; analyze the competitive situation; describe the general business conditions in Laos; and provide some insight as to how Husqvarna can enter the Laotian market.</p><p><strong></strong></p><p><strong>Method</strong></p><p>The method I have used for collection of information is two-fold. The empirical data has mostly been derived via interviews with forestry officials and companies involved in forestry. The theoretical review and collection of secondary data has been performed by research of books, journals, reports, newspapers and online sources. The research methodology can accordingly be labelled "the actor approach" which methodology is based on understanding social entireties. An important element in this approach is a process referred to as the hermeneutic circle - a process in which new knowledge is continuously incorporated into the understanding and used as base for further research. An important part of the method is my personal experience of Laos, from which I consider myself being able to base some conclusions.</p><p><strong></strong></p><p><strong>Theoretical Review</strong></p><p>Foreign market entry can generally be made in four modes: Exporting, licensing, joint ventures, or sole ventures. Foreign market entry strategies may involve adapting the marketing strategy. It may also necessitate product adaption.</p><p> </p><p>Market entry in developing countries will most likely mean being exposed to unfamiliar environments. The general business conditions might be very different from the home market and constitute higher levels of trade barriers and sociocultural distance may be difficult to deal with.</p><p><strong></strong></p><p><strong>Case Study, Conclusions and Reflections</strong></p><p>The highlights from these two chapters include:</p><ul type="disc"><li>Laos offers foreign investors to use any of the four market entry modes.</li><li>Doing business in Laos receives a low international rating, especially in terms of labor restrictions. It also has rather high trade barriers.</li><li>Laos is developing its commercial tree plantation sector and estimates suggest that the harvesting volumes will be increasing rapidly in the coming 10-15 years.</li><li>Importing and selling forestry power equipment is restricted. Laos does not yet have any authorized dealer for chainsaws. This provides for interesting opportunities.</li><li>The market is flooded with cheap, illegally imported, Chinese chainsaws, but it is questionable whether this actually constitutes any competition to Husqvarna, being a high quality brand. The Chinese chainsaws might however soon increase in terms of quality and be more competitive.</li><li>Obtaining an import and sales license for outdoor power products may be a rather lengthy procedure but once in place would mean being the first authorized dealer - which might be advantageous.</li></ul><p> </p><p><strong>Recommendation</strong></p><p>Due to Laos making efforts to increase the commercial tree plantation area, the harvesting volumes will increase rapidly the coming years. The sales potential for forestry equipment will hence increase in the years to come.</p><p> </p><p>My recommendation to Husqvarna, if they have resources, is therefore to locate a dealer and enter the Laotian market. Plantations are however still mostly in the development phase. It is therefore doubtful that early entry is profitable enough to be motivated if there are other markets with higher potential that Husqvarna wants to enter.</p><p> </p>

Background This thesis is conducted for Husqvarna AB with the aim to map the Laotian market for them in terms of market potential for forestry power equipment. In order to provide decision material for further action I was asked to give a description of the Laotian forestry sector; research potential harvesting volumes; analyze the competitive situation; describe the general business conditions in Laos; and provide some insight as to how Husqvarna can enter the Laotian market. Method The method I have used for collection of information is two-fold. The empirical data has mostly been derived via interviews with forestry officials and companies involved in forestry. The theoretical review and collection of secondary data has been performed by research of books, journals, reports, newspapers and online sources. The research methodology can accordingly be labelled "the actor approach" which methodology is based on understanding social entireties. An important element in this approach is a process referred to as the hermeneutic circle - a process in which new knowledge is continuously incorporated into the understanding and used as base for further research. An important part of the method is my personal experience of Laos, from which I consider myself being able to base some conclusions. Theoretical Review Foreign market entry can generally be made in four modes: Exporting, licensing, joint ventures, or sole ventures. Foreign market entry strategies may involve adapting the marketing strategy. It may also necessitate product adaption.   Market entry in developing countries will most likely mean being exposed to unfamiliar environments. The general business conditions might be very different from the home market and constitute higher levels of trade barriers and sociocultural distance may be difficult to deal with. Case Study, Conclusions and Reflections The highlights from these two chapters include: <ul type="disc">Laos offers foreign investors to use any of the four market entry modes. Doing business in Laos receives a low international rating, especially in terms of labor restrictions. It also has rather high trade barriers. Laos is developing its commercial tree plantation sector and estimates suggest that the harvesting volumes will be increasing rapidly in the coming 10-15 years. Importing and selling forestry power equipment is restricted. Laos does not yet have any authorized dealer for chainsaws. This provides for interesting opportunities. The market is flooded with cheap, illegally imported, Chinese chainsaws, but it is questionable whether this actually constitutes any competition to Husqvarna, being a high quality brand. The Chinese chainsaws might however soon increase in terms of quality and be more competitive. Obtaining an import and sales license for outdoor power products may be a rather lengthy procedure but once in place would mean being the first authorized dealer - which might be advantageous.   Recommendation Due to Laos making efforts to increase the commercial tree plantation area, the harvesting volumes will increase rapidly the coming years. The sales potential for forestry equipment will hence increase in the years to come.   My recommendation to Husqvarna, if they have resources, is therefore to locate a dealer and enter the Laotian market. Plantations are however still mostly in the development phase. It is therefore doubtful that early entry is profitable enough to be motivated if there are other markets with higher potential that Husqvarna wants to enter.

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Dès la conquête de la Cochinchine en 1862, l’Administration coloniale et des particuliers français exploitèrent l’agriculture locale et y développèrent l’économie. Ils tentèrent de faire l’essai et d’introduire diverses cultures, en particulier des arbres à caoutchouc. L’année 1897 marqua le début de l’hévéaculture de Cochinchine, lorsqu’on planta avec succès près de deux mille hévéas brasiliensis. La superficie de l’hévéaculture en Cochinchine se développait prodigieusement, allant de cent hectares à la fin du XIXème siècle à près de cent mille hectares au début des années trente, grâce d’une part à des capitaux provenant de la Métropole et, d’autre part à des mesures d’encouragement du Gouvernement colonial. Les plantations d’hévéa attirèrent les travailleurs locaux, surtout en provenance du Tonkin et de l’Annam, à raison d’une dizaine de mille, parfois une vingtaine de mille par an.Parallèlement à l’extension des superficies plantées, la production du caoutchouc de la colonie s’accrut rapidement, allant d’un peu plus d’une tonne en 1908 à plus de soixante mille tonnes en 1939. Les plantations d’hévéa devinrent l’une des cultures les plus importantes de Cochinchine à l’époque coloniale française. Non seulement elles apportèrent la fortune aux planteurs de la colonie, mais elles assurèrent une partie, et depuis 1938, la totalité des besoins de caoutchouc de l’industrie métropolitaine. Les plantations d’hévéa de Cochinchine représentaient un symbole de la colonisation agricole française, mais aussi hélas l’une des pages noires de l’histoire du colonialisme français au Vietnam par l’exploitation brutale des planteurs envers les travailleurs vietnamiens. / As early as the conquest of Cochinchina in 1862, the colonial administration and French individuals exploited the local agriculture and developed the economy there. They tried to experiment and introduce various crops, especially rubber trees. The year of 1897 marked the beginning of the rubber plantation of Cochinchina, when two thousand rubber trees brasiliensis were successfully planted. The area of rubber tree plantation in Cochinchina grew tremendously, ranging from one hundred hectares at the end of the 19th century to nearly one hundred thousand hectares in the early 1930s, because of, on the one hand, the capital invested from the metropolis, and, on the other hand, the measures of encouragement taken by the colonial Government. The rubber plantations attracted local workers, mainly from Tonkin and Annam, at a rate of about 10.000, sometimes 20.000 persons a year. In parallel with the extension of the area of rubber plantation, the colonial rubber production rapidly increased from just over one tonne in 1908 to more than 60.000 tons in 1939.The rubber tree plantation became one of the most important crops of Cochinchina during the French colonial era. Not only they brought fortune to the planters of the colony, but they secured a part, and since 1938, the whole of the rubber demands of the metropolitan industries. The Cochinchina rubber plantations represented a symbol of French agricultural colonization and, unfortunately, one of the black pages of the history of French colonialism in Vietnam by the brutal exploitation of Vietnamese workers by rubber planters.