Over the last twenty years, the expansion of the genetic code has been made possible by the encoding of unnatural amino acids into proteins. Unnatural amino acids could be used to expand the chemical functionalities available to biology allowing for the production of ‘allo-proteins’ with potentially novel structures and functions. One method to engineer the genetic code is to engineer the translational components responsible for its maintenance. This methodology relies primarily on the evolution of the aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and their cognate tRNAs to produce an orthogonal enzyme and tRNA pair that allows for the insertion of unnatural amino acids into proteins. To date only a handful of these orthogonal pairs are available for use in genetic code expansion. As in vitro and in vivo techniques to re-code the genetic code have expanded, the utility of having multiple orthogonal pairs to site-specifically insert multiple unnatural amino acids into proteins has increased. In addition, the development of a variety of orthogonal pairs based on the twenty canonical aminoacyl tRNA synthetase-tRNA pairs will expand the types of unnatural amino acid sidechains available for protein engineering efforts. Herein we describe the engineering of the tryptophanyl tRNA synthetase and tRNA superscript Trp], pair from yeast for use as an orthogonal pair in E. coli. We have successfully built and tested synthetic expression constructs for the expression of this orthogonal pair in vivo. In addition, we have rationally engineered an orthogonal amber nonsense suppressor tRNA based on the yeast tRNA[superscript Trp], dubbed AS3.4. This suppressor has been shown to be an efficient orthogonal suppressor tRNA in vivo, and will aid in our efforts to expand the genetic code with heterocyclic unnatural amino acids. We also have developed a potentially tunable two part selection scheme, for use in the directed evolution of mutant tRNA synthetases that are specific to unnatural amino acid substrates. / text

The protein Liquid facets (Lqf) promotes endocytosis at the plasma membrane1. Lqf activity is required for proper Notch signaling, likely through facilitating the endocytosis of Notch ligand by indirectly linking ligand to clathrin. A genetic modifier screen to identify genes that interact with lqf was performed by a previous graduate student. Genes identified in the screen might provide new insights into how Lqf promotes endocytosis or how Notch signaling is regulated. In this work, I performed genetic mapping techniques to identify the genes mutated in each complementation group of the screen. I identified the gene mutated in complementation group 6 as mitochondrial alanyl tRNA synthetase (Aats-ala-m). tRNA synthetases link a tRNA to its cognate amino acid during translation. Mitochondrial tRNA synthetases function in the mitochondria in translation. Aats-ala-m genetically interacts with lqf, suggesting the two genes function in the same pathway. In this work, I also identified chromosomal regions where the genes mutated in complementation groups 1,2, and 9 are located. / text

No description available.

tRNA genes have the fundamental role of translating the genetic code during protein synthesis. Beyond solely a passive decoding role, the tRNA pool exerts selection pressures on the codon usage of organisms and the viruses that infect them because processing codons read by rare tRNAs can be slow or even erroneous. To better understand the interactions of codons and anticodons in eukaryotic species, we first investigated whether tRNAs packaged into HIV-1 particles may relate to the poor codon usage of HIV-1 genes. By comparing the codon usage of HIV-1 genes with that of its human host, we found that tRNAs decoding poorly adapted codons are overrepresented in HIV-1 virions. Because the affinity of Gag-Pol for all tRNAs is non-specific, HIV packaging is most likely passive and reflects the tRNA pool at the time of viral particle formation. Moreover, differences that we found in the codon usage between early and late genes suggest alterations in the tRNA pool are induced late in viral infection. Next, we tested whether a reduced tRNA anticodon pattern, which was called into question by predicted tRNA datasets, is maintained across eukaryotes. tRNA prediction methods are prone to falsely identifying tRNA-derived repetitive sequences as functional tRNA genes. Thus, we proposed and tested a novel approach to identify falsely predicted tRNA genes using phylogenetics. Phylogenetic analysis removed nearly all the genes deviating from the anticodon pattern, therefore the anticodon pattern is reaffirmed across eukaryotes.

RNase P is a ubiquitous ribonuclease responsible for removing the 5’ leader of tRNA precursor. Bacterial RNase P contains one RNA (RPR) and one protein (RPP) subunit. However, the number of protein variants depends on the origin. The RNA subunit is the catalytic subunit that in vitro cleaves its substrate with and without the protein subunit. Therefore RNase P is a ribozyme. However, the protein subunit is indispensable in vivo. The objective of this thesis was to understand the mechanism of and substrate interaction in RPR-mediated cleavage, in particular the contributions of the two domains of RPR and the roles of the base at the -1 residue in the substrate. As model systems I have used bacterial (Eco) and archaeal (Pfu) RPRs. The TSL (T-stem-loop) region of a tRNA precursor and the TBS (TSL-binding site) in the RPR S-domain interact upon RPR-substrate complex conformation. A productive TSL/TBS-interaction affects events at the cleavage site by influencing the positioning of chemical groups and/ or Mg2+ such that efficient and correct cleavage occurs consistent with an induced fit mechanism. With respect to events at the cleavage site, my data show that the identity of the residue immediately upstream the 5’ of the cleavage site (at -1) plays a significant role for efficient and accurate cleavage although its presence is not essential. My data also show that the RPR C-domain can cleave without the S-domain. However, the presence of the S-domain increases the efficiency of cleavage but lowers the accuracy. The structure of the S-domain of Pfu RPR differs from that of Eco RPR and my data suggest that the Pfu S-domain does not affect the accuracy in the same way as for Eco RPR. It also appears that the proteins that bind to the Pfu S-domain play a role in formation of a productive TSL/TBS-interaction. It is therefore possible that the proteins of Pfu RNase P have evolved to take over the role of the S-domain with respect to the interaction with the TSL-region of the substrate.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Ohio University, June, 2007. / Abstract only has been uploaded to OhioLINK. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 205-212)

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 107-118). Also available in electronic version.

Η ριβονουκλεάση Ρ (RNase P) είναι ένα πανταχού παρόν ένζυμο, το οποίο θραύει ενδονουκλεολυτικά τα πρόδρομα μετάγραφα των tRNA, παράγοντας τα ώριμα 5΄ άκρα τους. Πρόσφατα, βρέθηκε πως η RNase P συμμετέχει στην μεταγραφή γονιδίων που κωδικοποιούν tRNA, rRNA και άλλα μικρά μη κωδικοποιούντα RNA. Η RNase P έχει ανιχνευθεί σε αντιπροσώπους και των τριών περιοχών της ζωής (βακτήρια, αρχαία, ευκαρυώτες), καθώς επίσης σε μιτοχόνδρια και χλωροπλάστες, με μοναδική εξαίρεση το αρχαίο Nanoarchaeum equitans. Σε σχεδόν όλους τους οργανισμούς, η RNase P είναι ένα ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικό σύμπλοκο αποτελούμενο από μία απαραίτητη RNA υπομονάδα και ποικίλο αριθμό πρωτεϊνών. Υπάρχουν μόνο δύο, πρόσφατα, αναφερόμενες εξαιρέσεις, αυτές των ανθρώπινων μιτοχονδρίων και των πλαστιδίων του φυτού A. thaliana, των οποίων η RNase P είναι αποκλειστικά πρωτεϊνικής φύσεως. Η RNA υπομονάδα είναι υπεύθυνη για την καταλυτική λειτουργία του ολοενζύμου της RNase P από τα βακτήρια, τα αρχαία και τους ευκαρυώτες. Οι πρωτεϊνικές υπομονάδες είναι απαραίτητες για την κατάλυση in vivo και παίζουν πολλούς ρόλους στη δομή και λειτουργία του ολοενζύμου. Η πυρηνική RNase P από το Dictyostelium discoideum είναι το πιο πλούσιο, σε πρωτεϊνική σύσταση, ολοένζυμο ανάμεσα στα ευκαρυωτικά ένζυμα RNase P που έχουν μελετηθεί μέχρι σήμερα. Είναι ένα ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικό σύμπλοκο, το οποίο αποτελείται από μια RNA υπομονάδα και οχτώ πρωτεΐνες (DRpp40, DRpp30, DRpp29, DRpp25, DRpp21, DRpp20, DPop1, DPop5). Αυτές οι πρωτεΐνες παρουσιάζουν ομοιότητες με τις ομόλογές τους από ανώτερα ευκαρυωτικά ένζυμα, όπως του ανθρώπου, ενώ παράλληλα διατηρούν ιδιοσυγκρασιακά χαρακτηριστικά. Στην παρούσα μελέτη, περιγράφουμε την κλωνοποίηση και τις ιδιότητες αλληλεπίδρασης της πρωτεΐνης DRpp29 με την RNA υπομονάδα της RNase P του D. discoideum. Πειράματα ηλεκτροφορητικής κινητικότητας έδειξαν, πως η DRpp29 δεσμεύεται ειδικά με την RNA υπομονάδα, ένα χαρακτηριστικό που επιβεβαιώθηκε περαιτέρω με τον σχεδιασμό του μοντέλου της δομής της DRpp29. Επιπλέον, κατασκευάστηκαν μεταλλάγματα απολοιφής της DRpp29, για να μελετηθούν οι περιοχές της DRpp29 που συνεισφέρουν ή/και είναι υπεύθυνες για την άμεση αλληλεπίδρασή της με την RNA υπομονάδα. Εντοπίστηκε μια περιοχή, μεταξύ των ευκαρυωτικών ομολόγων, πλούσια σε λυσίνες και αργινίνες, η οποία φαίνεται να διευκολύνει την αλληλεπίδραση των δύο αυτών υπομονάδων. Προσδιορίσαμε, επίσης, με τη διεξαγωγή ανάλυσης αποτυπώματος και τη χρήση δεδομένων βιοπληροφορικής, τη δευτεροταγή δομή της RNA υπομονάδας της RNase P του D. discoideum. Με ανάλυση αποτυπώματος αποκαλύφθηκε, πως η DRpp29 αλληλεπιδρά με την περιοχή εξειδίκευσης (“S-domain”) της RNA υπομονάδας, δείχνοντας, ότι η DRpp29 επηρεάζει την ικανότητα δέσμευσης του υποστρώματος από το ένζυμο. Στη συνέχεια, ελέγχθη η ικανότητα της DRpp29 και των μεταλλαγμάτων της να σχηματίζουν, μαζί με την RNA υπομονάδα του E. coli, ενεργά ενζυμικά σύμπλοκα με δραστικότητα RNase P. Τέλος, ελέγχθη ο σχηματισμός ενός ελάχιστα καταλυτικού πυρήνα της RNase P του D. discoideum, με την πραγματοποίηση πειραμάτων ομόλογης ανασύστασης με την DRpp29, τον πρωτεϊνικό της συνεργάτη DRpp21 και την RNA υπομονάδα / Ribonuclease P (RNase P) is a ubiquitous enzyme, which endonucleolytically cleaves the precursor tRNA transcripts to produce their mature 5΄ ends. Recently, RNase P has been found to participate in the transcription of tRNA, rRNA and other small non-coding RNA genes. RNase P occurs in representatives of all domains of life (bacteria, archaea, eukarya), as well as in mitochondria and chloroplasts, apart from the archeon Nanoarchaeum equitans. In almost every organism, RNase P is a ribonucleoprotein complex, with one essential RNA and a multiple number of protein subunits. There are only two exceptional cases, that of the human mitochondria and the plastids from A. thaliana, whose RNase P lacks an RNA subunit. The RNA subunit is responsible for the main catalytic function of the RNase P holoenzyme in bacteria, archaea and eukarya. Protein subunits are essential for catalysis in vivo and they play multiple roles in structure and function of the holoenzyme. Dictyostelium discoideum nuclear RNase P is the most proteinaceous holoenzyme among the eukaryal RNase P studied so far. It’s a ribonucleoprotein complex, which consists of one RNA and eight protein subunits (DRpp40, DRpp30, DRpp29, DRpp25, DRpp21, DRpp20, DPop1, DPop5). These proteins display similarities with its counterparts from higher eukaryotes, such as the human enzyme, but at the same time they retain distinctive characteristics. In the present study, we report the molecular cloning and interaction details of DRpp29 and RNase P RNA. Electromobility shift assays exhibited that DRpp29 binds specifically to the RNase P RNA subunit, a feature that was further confirmed by the molecular modeling of the DRpp29 structure. Moreover, deletion mutants of DRpp29 were constructed in order to investigate the domains of DRpp29 that contribute to and/or are responsible for the direct interaction with the D. discoideum RNase P RNA. A eukaryotic specific, lysine and arginine rich region was revealed, which seems to facilitate the interaction between these two subunits. We determined the D. discoideum RNase P RNA secondary structure based on footprinting analysis and bioinformatic data. Furthermore, footprinting analysis revealed that DRpp29 interact with the specificity domain (“S-domain”) of the RNA subunit, suggesting that DRpp29 influence the enzyme’s substrate binding ability. Furthermore, we tested the ability of wild type and mutant DRpp29 to form active RNase P enzymatic particles with the E. coli’s RNase P RNA. Finally, we tested the formation of a minimal catalytic core of the D. discoideum RNase P, by performing homologous reconstitution experiments with DRpp29, its protein partner DRpp21 and the RNA subunit

Orientador: Cesar Martins / Resumo: Cromossomos supernumerários são polimorfismos numéricos frequentemente registrados em eucariotos, sendo que seus efeitos são pouco elucidados. Em alguns indivíduos da espécie Astatotilapia latifasciata pode-se identificar um ou dois cromossomos B, que são totalmente heterocromáticos e ricos em sequências repetitivas. Em vista de compreender sua origem, evolução e efeitos, este elemento vem sendo largamente explorado por técnicas integradas de citogenética, biologia molecular e genômica. Aqui, explorou-se o padrão de marcas epigenéticas do DNA deste cromossomo B e seus efeitos nas vias de metilação do DNA e de formação de tRFs. Usando-se imunocitogenética, ferramentas de bioinformática, quantificação global de 5mC e 5hmC e RT-qPCR, identificou-se que o cromossomo B de A. latifasciata possui padrão epigenético ativo e que não é um isocromossomo. Além disso, foram observados efeitos heterogêneos deste cromossomo na expressão de epi-miRNAs candidatos, de genes de modificações epigenéticas do DNA e de genes relacionados com a formação de tRFs. Como consequência, também foram registrados efeitos de cromossomos B nos níveis globais de 5mC e 5hmC e na formação de tRFs. Essas variações observadas parecem estar relacionadas com os mecanismos de manutenção do cromossomo B e estão em desacordo com a difundida ideia de que ele seja um elemento inerte. / Doutor

Advances in DNA synthesis technology have led to rapid growth in the field of synthetic biology, heralding a nascent era of synthetic genomics. Sc2.0 (Saccharomyces cerevisiae version 2.0) is an international consortium with the aim of designing and constructing a fully‐synthetic eukaryotic genome. Fundamental design changes to the synthetic genome include the removal of unstable tRNA genes and their intended collation onto a “tRNA neochromosome”, with the aim of producing a more robust and stable synthetic genome structure. To maintain viability of a synthetic yeast, the tRNA neochromosome is therefore considered an important if not essential aspect of this project. The application of engineering principles is synonymous with synthetic biology, regularly employing the recursive Design‐Build‐Test cycle to improve experimental approach. This doctoral study explores the design, construction and characterisation of a tRNA neochromosome in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A series of design principles influenced by engineering concepts were used to rationalise the complexities of de novo chromosome engineering, maximise its stability and ensure function in vivo. A methodology based on in vivo homologous recombination was then developed and shown to reliably construct the neochromosome from its constituent parts. Experimental characterisation revealed that genetic elements function as expected, and that the parental strain can tolerate the sole presence of one each of three single‐copy, essential tRNA genes (SUP61, TRT2 and TRR4), although Northern blot revealed potential precursor accumulation of the SUP61 tRNA caused by the presence of a synthetic 5’ flanking sequence. Following the addition of synthetic telomere seed sequences, pulsed‐field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and deep sequencing revealed complex structure variations in two independent strain backgrounds. Except for these structural variations, successful neochromosome construction demonstrated the applicability of the approaches used and the remarkable ability of the yeast model to support the presence of a 17th chromosome housing an additional 275 tRNA genes. The research in this thesis has for the first time described the design, construction and characterisation of a eukaryotic neochromosome de novo. It is hoped that the findings presented will further our understanding of tRNA biology and enhance the aims of the Sc2.0 project.