Chronic kidney disease is a substantial health problem effecting a large portion of the US population. Presence of excess protein, particularly albumin, in the urine of patients with chronic kidney disease is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and progression to end stage renal disease. In addition, excess protein reabsorption in the proximal tubule is sufficient to cause damage to the proximal tubule independent of the initial condition that lead to chronic disease. In the last decade, excess protein reabsorption by the proximal tubule as a result of chronic kidney damage has been shown to cause oxidative and ER stress, cell death, as well as tubule inflammation and fibrosis in the proximal tubule cell. Only recently have two studies investigated the role of autophagy in protein-induced tubule damage. Autophagy is a dynamic catabolic mechanism used to degrade cytosolic elements in times of cell starvation and is an important process in the cell's response to stress. The results of the studies by Wei Jin Liu et al. and Yamahara et. al. provide important first steps to determine whether autophagy of excess protein in proteinuric states prevents proximal tubule cell toxicity and potentially slow the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). This thesis will explore the results of these two studies in the context of proximal tubule damage in chronic kidney disease, and discuss the potential for protein autophagy to improve our understanding and treatment of chronic kidney disease.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(医学) / 乙第13330号 / 論医博第2198号 / 新制||医||1044(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 長船 健二, 教授 羽賀 博典, 教授 山下 潤 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Space flight has been shown to have many adverse effects on various systems throughout the body. Because the opportunity to place research animals on board a Space Shuttle or the International Space Station is infrequent, various techniques have been designed to simulate the effects of microgravity in Earth based laboratories. A commonly used technique is known as antiorthostatic suspension, also often referred to as hind limb suspension. In this technique the hind portion of the animal is raised so that its hind limbs are non-weight bearing. This places the animal in roughly a 30° head down tilt position. This results in cephalic fluid shifts similar to those seen in actual space flight. This technique has also been shown to mimic other physiological parameters that are affected during space flight. This study examined testicular tissue from rats subjected to a 7 day antiorthostatic suspension. This tissue was acquired through a tissue sharing program and some of the experimental animals were injected with Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) which was hoped to ameliorate some of the effects of antiorthostatic suspension. The injection of IL-1ra was not expected to have any effect on testicular tissue, however this tissue was included in the morphological and statistical analysis to conduct a more complete study. All tissues were embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained using standard H&E staining. The tissue was then qualitatively ranked according to the "health" of the seminiferous tubules. Our findings indicate that 7 days of antiorthostatic suspension had adverse effects on the tissue that comprises the walls of the seminiferous tubules. It has long been known that antiorthostatic suspension has deleterious effects on testicular tissue, however this research indicates that these effects occur much faster than indicated by previous researchers. This is a significant finding because it indicates that meaningful earth based studies in this area can be carried out in a shorter time span. This could result in more studies per year as well as saving money by avoiding longer than necessary animal suspensions. This is especially important as we enter an era when, without Space Shuttle, flight opportunities will become scarce. These antiorthostatic suspension studies indicate that space flight, even short duration spaceflight, may have harmful effects on the seminiferous tubules and blood-testis barrier of astronauts.

No description available.

<p>The transport of ammonia by various tissues throughout the body is of fundamental importance for nitrogen excretion in invertebrates, yet sites and mechanisms of ammonia transport are not presently well understood. In this thesis a novel ammonium-selective microelectrode was developed using the ionophore TD19C6, which is approximately 3800-fold more selective for NH₄⁺ than Na⁺ compared with the 100-fold difference of nonactin used in previous microelectrodes. We investigated the accuracy of the ammonium microelectrode in solutions simulating <em>Drosophila</em> haemolymph (25 mM K⁺) and secreted fluid (120 mM K⁺). In haemolymph-like solutions, ammonium could be measured down to about 1 mM, with an error of 0.5 mM, while in secreted fluid-like conditions ammonium could be determined to within 0.3 mM down to a level of 1 mM NH₄⁺ in the presence of 100 to 140 mM K⁺. These results suggested that the ammonium microelectrode could be used to measure ammonium in the presence of physiological levels of potassium, unlike previous studies. We also quantified ammonium secretion by the Malpighian (renal) tubules of larvae. Ammonium concentrations of secreted fluid were consistently equivalent to or above ammonium concentrations of bathing salines. With a lumen-positive transepithelial potential, these results suggested an active secretory mechanism for ammonia transport. Under conditions of low K⁺ concentrations, the ability of the tubules to concentrate ammonium in secreted fluid was significantly enhanced, indicating some level of competition between NH₄⁺ and K⁺ for common transporters. The new ammonium-selective microelectrode is sufficiently sensitive to detect ammonium at the picomol level.</p> / Master of Science (MSc)

O presente estudo indica que o pHi basal do segmento S3 do túbulo proximal é 7.10 ? 0.007 (n = 444/2117), sendo a extrusão celular de H+ feita pelo trocador Na+/H+ (marjoritariamante) e pela H+-ATPase. Nossos resultados sugerem um papel do cálcio citosólico na regulação do processo de recuperação do pHi após carga ácida, mediada pelo trocador Na+/H+ e pela H+-ATPase. O trocador é estimulado por Aldosterona (10-12, 10-10 e 10-8 M) e inibido por Aldosterona (10-6 M) via ação genômica e não-genômica. Esses resultados são compatíveis com a estimulação do trocador por moderado aumento da [Ca2+]i citosólico (com Aldosterona 10-12 M) e sua inibição por pronunciado aumento da [Ca2+]i (com Aldosterona 10-6 M). A H+-ATPase é estimulada por Aldosterona em todas as doses utilizadas via ação genômica e não-genômica e esses resultados são coincidentes com um aumento da [Ca2+]i, dose dependente. Esses nossos achados são também compatíveis com a demonstração de uma ação hormonal não-genômica (após 1 ou 15 min) e genômica (após 1 hora) na [Ca2+]i, no trocador e na H+-ATPase. Adicionalmente, nossos resultados indicando que os efeitos hormonais genômicos ocorrem via receptor MR são coincidentes com nossos dados demonstrando a expressão desses receptores no segmento S3. Esses efeitos da Aldosterona que acabamos de descrever podem representar uma regulação fisiológica relevante, em condições de depleção e expansão de volume no animal intacto. / The present study indicate that the basal pHi of proximal S3 segment is 7.10 ? 0.007 (n = 444/2117), being made the extrusion by of Na+/H+ exchanger (mainly) and H+-ATPase. Our results suggest a role for cell calcium in regulating the process of pHi recovery after the acid load induced by NH4Cl, mostly mediated by a basolateral Na+/H+ exchanger, and stimulated by Aldosterone (10-12, 10-10 e 10-8 M) and impaired by Aldosterone (10-6 M) via a genomic and nongenomic action. They are compatible with stimulation of the Na+/H+ exchanger by increases in cell calcium in the lower range (at Aldosterone 10-12 M) and inhibition at high cell calcium levels (at Aldosterone 10-6 M). The H+-ATPase is stimulated in all the used doses via a genomic and nongenomic action, this is coincident with the dose-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i. This finding is also compatible with the demonstration of a hormonal nongenomic (after 1 min or 15 min) and genomic (after 1 h) action on [Ca2+]i, on the Na+/H+ exchanger and on H+-ATPase. Our results indicating that the genomics effects are via MR receptor are in accordanc with our finding showing expression of the receptors in the proximal S3 segment of rat. These Aldosterone effects may represent physiologically relevant regulation in conditions of volume depletion or expansion in the intact animal.

O presente estudo indica que o pHi basal do segmento S3 do túbulo proximal é 7.10 ? 0.007 (n = 444/2117), sendo a extrusão celular de H+ feita pelo trocador Na+/H+ (marjoritariamante) e pela H+-ATPase. Nossos resultados sugerem um papel do cálcio citosólico na regulação do processo de recuperação do pHi após carga ácida, mediada pelo trocador Na+/H+ e pela H+-ATPase. O trocador é estimulado por Aldosterona (10-12, 10-10 e 10-8 M) e inibido por Aldosterona (10-6 M) via ação genômica e não-genômica. Esses resultados são compatíveis com a estimulação do trocador por moderado aumento da [Ca2+]i citosólico (com Aldosterona 10-12 M) e sua inibição por pronunciado aumento da [Ca2+]i (com Aldosterona 10-6 M). A H+-ATPase é estimulada por Aldosterona em todas as doses utilizadas via ação genômica e não-genômica e esses resultados são coincidentes com um aumento da [Ca2+]i, dose dependente. Esses nossos achados são também compatíveis com a demonstração de uma ação hormonal não-genômica (após 1 ou 15 min) e genômica (após 1 hora) na [Ca2+]i, no trocador e na H+-ATPase. Adicionalmente, nossos resultados indicando que os efeitos hormonais genômicos ocorrem via receptor MR são coincidentes com nossos dados demonstrando a expressão desses receptores no segmento S3. Esses efeitos da Aldosterona que acabamos de descrever podem representar uma regulação fisiológica relevante, em condições de depleção e expansão de volume no animal intacto. / The present study indicate that the basal pHi of proximal S3 segment is 7.10 ? 0.007 (n = 444/2117), being made the extrusion by of Na+/H+ exchanger (mainly) and H+-ATPase. Our results suggest a role for cell calcium in regulating the process of pHi recovery after the acid load induced by NH4Cl, mostly mediated by a basolateral Na+/H+ exchanger, and stimulated by Aldosterone (10-12, 10-10 e 10-8 M) and impaired by Aldosterone (10-6 M) via a genomic and nongenomic action. They are compatible with stimulation of the Na+/H+ exchanger by increases in cell calcium in the lower range (at Aldosterone 10-12 M) and inhibition at high cell calcium levels (at Aldosterone 10-6 M). The H+-ATPase is stimulated in all the used doses via a genomic and nongenomic action, this is coincident with the dose-dependent increase in [Ca2+]i. This finding is also compatible with the demonstration of a hormonal nongenomic (after 1 min or 15 min) and genomic (after 1 h) action on [Ca2+]i, on the Na+/H+ exchanger and on H+-ATPase. Our results indicating that the genomics effects are via MR receptor are in accordanc with our finding showing expression of the receptors in the proximal S3 segment of rat. These Aldosterone effects may represent physiologically relevant regulation in conditions of volume depletion or expansion in the intact animal.

Le tubule proximal participe à la diurèse en modifiant la composition de l'ultrafiltrat glomérulaire. Grâce à de nombreux transports transépithéliaux, il le glucose, les acides aminés et les protéines de bas poids moléculaires, ainsi que 80 % des ions HPO42- ou HCO3-, 60 % des ions Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, 75 % de l’eau et 30 % des ions Mg2+ ultrafiltrés.Durant ma thèse, j'ai étudié les rôles physiologiques et physiopathologiques de deux protéines de transport exprimées dans le tubule proximal.Dans le cadre de ma première étude, j'ai évalué in vivo la fonction rénale de souris n'exprimant pas une protéine appelée Kir4.2, dont le rôle est inconnu. Nos résultats montrent que Kir4.2, associée à Kir5.1, forme un canal potassique basolatéral Kir4.2/Kir5.1 dans le tubule proximal. L'absence de Kir4.2 provoque chez la souris une acidose tubulaire proximale isolée, consécutive à une ammoniogénèse altérée. De fait, la perte de fonctionnalité de Kir4.2 pourrait être à l'origine d'acidoses tubulaires proximales isolées familiales idiopathiques.Dans le cadre de ma seconde étude, j'ai analysé in vitro la fonctionnalité d'un mutant pathogène de l'échangeur 2Cl-/H+ ClC-5 impliqué dans la maladie de Dent. Cette maladie, caractérisée par une protéinurie de bas poids moléculaire associées à divers troubles du tubule proximal, serait liée à un défaut d'acidification des endosomes précoces par ClC-5. Toutefois, le mutant de ClC-5 que nous avons étudié, converti en canal chlorure, acidifie autant les endosomes précoces que le ClC-5 sauvage. Surprenants, ces résultats suggèrent que la maladie de Dent puisse être causée par un défaut d'accumulation d'ions chlorure dans l'endosome. / The proximal tubule is involved in diuresis by modifying the content of the glomerular ultrafiltrate. Using a variety of transepithelial transports systems, it reabsorbs all ultrafiltrated glucose, amino-acids and low molecular weight proteins, as well as 80% of HPO42- and HCO3- ions, about 60% of Na+, Cl-, K+, and Ca2+ ions, 75% of water and 30% of Mg2+.During this thesis, I determined the physiological and physiopathological roles of two transport proteins present in proximal tubule. Firstly, I evaluated the renal function of mice invalidated for the Kir4.2 protein, whose role was undetermined. Our results show that Kir4.2, in association with Kir5.1, form a Kir4.2/Kir5.1 potassium channel at the basolateral membrane of proximal tubular cells. Furthermore, Kir4.2-null mice exhibit a reduced ammoniagenesis leading to an isolated proximal renal tubular acidosis. This study provides the gene encoding Kir4.2 as a candidate gene for the yet unexplained autosomal dominant isolated proximal renal tubular acidosis.Secondly, I evaluated in vitro the functional consequences of a pathogenic mutation of the 2Cl-/H+ exchanger ClC-5, involved in Dent’s disease. This disease, characterized by a low-molecular-weigth-proteinuria in the context of a general proximal tubule dysfunction, is currently thought to be due to an acidification defect of early endosomes linked to a loss of function of ClC-5. Surprisingly, our results show that ClC-5, converted into a chloride channel by this mutation, indeed acidifies the early endosomes as well as the ClC-5 wild-type. Thus, Dent’s disease may originate from a defect in the accumulation of chloride ions into the early endosomes.

The lumen-to-cell transport, cellular accumulation, and toxicity of ionic cadmium (109Cd2+) and cadmium-cysteine conjugate (Cys-S-109Cd-S-Cys) were studied in isolated perfused S2 segments of the proximal tubule of the rabbit kidney. All perfusion solutions were HEPES buffered and contained 3H-L-glucose which functioned as a volume and leak marker along with 250 nM FD & C Green dye as a vital dye. When ionic cadmium, 0.73µM Cd2+, or 0.73µM cadmium-cysteine conjugate (Cys-S-109Cd-S-Cys) containing solution was perfused through the lumen of the tubule there was no visual evidence of toxicity such as blebbing of the luminal membrane, cellular vital dye uptake, and cellular swelling. Ionic Cd2+ transport was temperature dependent (87% reduction at 22°C and 100% at 11°C) and inhibited by FeCl2 (42% reduction at 10µM) and ZnCl2 (48% reduction at 20µM), and high Ca2+ concentrations (27% reduction at 1.95mM and 69% at 2.6mM). The ionic Cd2+ transport was not affected by verapamil and diltiazem. The cadmium conjugate (Cys-S-Cd-S-Cys) transport was also temperature dependent (76% reduction at 22°C and 100% at 11°C) and inhibited by the amino acids L-cystine and L-arginine (55% and 50% respectively), stimulated by L-methionine (56%), but not affected by L-aspartate, L-glutamate and Gly-Sar. 2, 3-Dimercaptopropane-1-Sulfonate (DMPS) co-perfused with Cd2+ decreased absorption of 20µM Cd2+ (39% reduction at 30 µM and 94.6% reduction at 200 µM), while DMPS added to the bathing solution has no effect on the luminal transport of Cd2+. DMPS co-perfused with 20 µM Cys-S-Cd-S-Cys substantially reduced Cd2+ transport (62% reduction at 30 µM). We conclude that cadmium can be transported at the luminal membrane of the S2 segment of the proximal tubule by multiple mechanisms, depending on the form which it is presented to membrane. Ionic cadmium appears to be transported by iron (DCT1), zinc (ZTL1) transporters and some kind of calcium-selective channel while cadmium conjugate of L-cysteine appears to be transported by L-cystine transporters (system b0+). Dipeptide transporter is not involved in the transport of cadmium. DMPS appears to be a chelator for cadmium.

Les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G (RCPG) sont impliqués dans la majeure partie des communications intercellulaires. Un grand nombre de RCPG ont été découverts en comparant la séquence des récepteurs connus avec les données fournies par le séquençage du génome humain. Pour plus d'une centaine de ces récepteurs, le ligand activateur ou agoniste est inconnu. Ces récepteurs sont dès lors qualifiés d'orphelins. Les LGR forment une sous-famille de RCPG structurellement proches de la rhodopsine qui comprend les récepteurs aux hormones glycoprotéiques (TSH, LH, hCG, FSH) et à la relaxine. LGR4 est un membre de cette famille dont ni la fonction précise, ni l'agoniste ne sont connus. Dans un premier temps, une cartographie détaillée de l'expression de Lgr4 chez la souris a été obtenue. Nous avons tiré parti de l'existence d'une lignée de souris transgéniques dont le gène Lgr4 a été interrompu par l'introduction d'une cassette comportant deux marqueurs histologiques. L'activité beta-galactosidase d'un de ces marqueurs a été analysée chez les souris hétérozygotes. Ces dernières ne présentent pas de phénotype particulier, ce qui permet d'estimer que l'expression des marqueurs rend effectivement compte de l'expression normale du gène Lgr4. Lgr4 est exprimé dans un grand nombre de structures, notamment dans le cartilage, le rein, les appareils reproducteurs mâle et femelle et certaines cellules du système nerveux. Ensuite, le phénotype des souris homozygotes pour l'inactivation de Lgr4 (LGR4KO) a été exploré. Ces souris présentent à la naissance un poids inférieur à leurs congénères des autres phénotypes. Les mâles sont stériles à cause d'une malformation des tubules efférents et de l'épididyme. Un blocage au niveau des tubules efférents reliant le testicule à l'épididyme contraint les spermatozoïdes à s'accumuler à la sortie du testicule, dans la région du rete testis. De plus, les tubes de l'épididyme, pourtant normaux à la naissance, ne s'allongent pas pour former la structure convolutée habituelle. L'épithélium de ces tubes est aplati et est entouré d'une quantité anormalement élevée de mésenchyme. Dans un troisième temps, des outils nécessaires aux futures tentatives d'identification de l'agoniste naturel de LGR4 ont été réalisés. Il s'agit : (1) d'anticorps monoclonaux dirigés contre la partie extracellulaire du récepteur humain. (2) d'un appât moléculaire pour la ‘pêche au ligand’. Cet appât est constitué du domaine extracellulaire du récepteur humain couplé à un marqueur histologique. (3) d'une construction peptidique constituée du domaine extracellulaire du récepteur humain couplé à une queue poly-histidine. Cette construction est destinée à servir de greffon lors de chromatographies d'affinités devant permettre de purifier le ligand. (4) de lignées cellulaires exprimant le récepteur LGR4 humain ainsi que le système æquorine devant permettre de détecter l'activation de ce récepteur. Les données apportées par ce travail montrent un rôle important du récepteur LGR4 au cours du développement et permettent de circonscrire le champ des recherches futures. Ceci, ainsi que les outils moléculaires développés, constitue une base pour l'identification future de l'agoniste et la détermination précise de la fonction de LGR4.