The past thirty years have seen rapid advances in the technological component of banking services and as a consequence new legal issues have come to the fore, especially with regard to Electronic Fund Transfers (EFTs) which are now used to transfer money around the world, and have made fund transactions between payers and payees easier, faster and more secure. The method involves risks for both banks and customers, due to the possibility of unauthorized payments risks, credit and insolvency problems, and confidentiality issues. Most contracts and obligations now depend on the new technology, although there is a variety of methods for dealing with the concomitant risks. EFTs share a number of similarities with paper-based funds transfers in regard to methods of regulation, and the careful observer can identify patterns and themes. Today, the business world depends heavily on EFT systems for its procedures; and government and academia have also taken a keen interest in EFTs. This thesis reviews and examines the existing legal position of liability of banks and customers for risks associated with EFT transactions: unauthorized EFT instruction and the problem of customer identity, credit risk and privacy, especially, the systems employed for safeguarding the customer’s transactions and data. The thesis also makes recommendations for change. The rules for the allocation of risk are based on the various mechanisms used to access the account. Also, due to the complexities of EFT, consumer protection becomes a paramount goal and is a subject of much concern, particularly when it comes to determining liability for losses. The UK government implemented the Payment Services Directive 2007 by adopting the Payment Services Regulations 2009, to regulate the system. However, such Regulations do not constitute a comprehensive regime that applies to all legal issues arising in the context of the EFT system. This study argues the necessity for a re-examination of existing laws and proposes a model for the future approach to the issues associated with EFT payment. Different approaches to EFT will be assessed, and the comparative and contrasting elements will be analysed in order to propose a comprehensive solution to the deficiencies in the current framework. Central to the problem is the absence of any uniform standard: individual banks offer differing contractual terms and conditions and different means of accessing accounts. Consequently it is time to formulate new and comprehensive rules for the allocation of liability of risks associated with EFT transactions.

In the United States, concern about breast cancer has generated policies and programs aimed at increasing screening mammography and treatment access for the uninsured and underinsured. Oriented toward the importance of early detection and the state's responsibility to ensure health care access to its citizens, these policies and programs reflect and reinforce a moral economy of disease management that shapes the ethical behavior of patients, providers, and advocates. In contrast, the moral economy of market-based health care generates norms and assumptions about individual responsibility for health and limits expectations of the state in providing access to health care. Using breast cancer care for structurally vulnerable women as a focal point, this dissertation examines the social effects of intersecting moral economies of breast cancer management and market-based health care. It describes the relationships between public policies, social and economic marginalization, and gaps in health care access. Based on 18 months of ethnographic field work in Southern Arizona, I report findings from interviews with physicians, nurses, advocates, clinic office staff, and community health workers; from recurring discussions with women undergoing treatment for breast cancer; and from participant-observation in cancer-focused events and activities. This dissertation explores how policies that extend low-cost or free health care to broad populations also reproduce social exclusion and complicate what it means to be uninsured in America. I describe how everyday practices of health care, including determinations of eligibility for public insurance, reflect and reinforce social inequities based on citizenship status, gender, and occupational status. I conclude that the organization of cancer care for structurally vulnerable women effectively directs the focus away from the state's responsibility to provide health care access and instead privatizes that responsibility so that it resides with structurally vulnerable clinics and non-licensed health care staff. Furthermore, a charity approach to managing cancer care for unauthorized U.S. residents diverts public responsibility for their social exclusion to private entities. Finally, the findings of this dissertation contribute to debates about health reform efforts, such as the Affordable Care Act, by outlining the relationship between moral worth and government entitlements.

The present study utilizes survey data (n = 415) collected in the Migrant Border Crossing Study from repatriated Mexican migrants to examine three important questions regarding unauthorized migration attempts through southern Arizona. First, what factors explicate migrants' modes of crossing? Second, do coyote fees vary among people who rely on smuggling services to cross the border? If so, what accounts for this variation? Third, what factors shape encounters with bajadores while traversing the desert? The present analyses expand on previous studies examining the unauthorized crossing in multiple ways. For instance, I empirically test the role of a "culture of migration" in explaining modes of crossing, coyote fees, and bajador encounters. I also differentiate between two main types of coyotes: "border business" and "interior." I then examine whether crossing with a coyote mediates the risk of encountering bajadores during the journey. Overall, there are important differences in crossing modes and coyote fees. Women are more likely to travel with both coyote types, while the opposite is true for more experienced migrants. Older migrants and people who cross during summer months are less likely to travel with an "interior" coyote. The strongest predictor of higher smuggling fees is the region of a person's U.S. destination. Higher coyote fees are also associated with immigrants' higher educational attainment, being married, being the sole economic provider for one's household, and higher household income. More experienced migrants, and those crossing in larger groups or during the summer also pay higher fees, however fees do not vary by gender, age, or social capital. These findings are somewhat consistent with the extant literature on human capital and risk tolerance/aversion, but run counter to the vast migration literature emphasizing the importance of social capital in the migration process. Finally, the risk of encountering bajadores is not higher for males, young adults, the less educated, and the more impoverished, which contradicts extant findings in the victimology literature. With the exception of crossing corridor and time spent in the desert, no other factors increase the risk of encountering bandits more than traveling with a coyote. Implications and possible future research are discussed.

Introduction: The number of students with school refusal has remained at a constant level in Sweden since measurements began in 2006. School health service resources has been reduced since municipalisation which makes it difficult to intercept these students in time. Objective: To identify the tools of school health services, resources and professional skills with unauthorized absence, and the measures applied preventively. Method: A qualitative study based on seven semi-structured interviews with all professions within the school health services. Results: The school's responsibility affect both student health organization and the student's school structure. The new grades and subject schemes introduced in 2011 make higher requirements on today's students. It´s important that all of the school personell are aware of the problem and pursue the same objectives, for a good interaction. Discussion: School health services shared experiences around the concept school refusal behavior reflects the complexity of the problem. Knowledge and skills are important components. The school teams experience that they are self-taught regarding the subject but want further education and increased resources to be more preventive and relationship-building. Conclusion: Further Swedish research and knowledge is needed, as well as an improved definition of the concept in order to improve school health service’s work with school refusal students in student.Keywords:

In this diploma thesis, I deal with the institute of acquiring from unauthorized person., which is breaking of Roman principle nemo plus iuris ad alium transferre potest quam ipse habet. In English it means, that no one can transfer to someone else more rights, than he has himself. Also, the acquisition form unauthorized person is interfering to the constitutionally guaranteed rigth to own the property. Therefore the legislation must adequatly reflect this fact, but it has not always been so. In diploma thesis I deal mainly with the development of this institute, principles, which are connected with this institute and especially with the analysis and description of current legal regulation. The thesis is divided into four chapters and introduction. The chapters are further divided to subchapters, which deal with the theme in more detail. The work ends with conclusion. In the first chapter, I deal with the general issue of material rights. Then, I deal with the institute of ownership, its constitutional basis, the definition and also the ways, in which the ownership can be acquired. The second chapter is about the historical evolution of acquisition from unauthorized person. I analyze first the period of Roman law, and I emphasize the principle of nemo plus iuris. Than I continue through the...

<p>The purpose of this essay is to elucidate if there is a liability to damages for cardholders, in case of unauthorized use of bankcards, in the event a liability for payment, according to 34 § the Swedish Law concerning Consumer Credits, should not be established between card issuer and cardholder. The purpose is also to elucidate if card issuing companies, in the event a liability for payment is established between card issuer and cardholder, have any possibility to get a larger sum than is allowed by 34 § the Swedish Law concerning Consumer Credits, by demanding damages from the cardholder. Finally there is a judgement of how a court could do if it wanted to hold a cardholder liable to damages because of unauthorized use of bankcards.</p>

The purpose of this essay is to elucidate if there is a liability to damages for cardholders, in case of unauthorized use of bankcards, in the event a liability for payment, according to 34 § the Swedish Law concerning Consumer Credits, should not be established between card issuer and cardholder. The purpose is also to elucidate if card issuing companies, in the event a liability for payment is established between card issuer and cardholder, have any possibility to get a larger sum than is allowed by 34 § the Swedish Law concerning Consumer Credits, by demanding damages from the cardholder. Finally there is a judgement of how a court could do if it wanted to hold a cardholder liable to damages because of unauthorized use of bankcards.

Unauthorized computer access by employees is the most common hacking behavior in every company. Hence, it is necessary to first understand why an employee engages to commit it and then find effective methods of prevention to reduce the crime rate. Many studies on computer hacking has discussed the reasons for the behavior, for example: neutralization theory, differential association theory and containment theory. However, those theories and perspectives were adopted independently in past research. In this study, we combine those perspectives and create an integrated model to explain the employee¡¦s intention to commit unauthorized computer access. Data collected from 351employees in Taiwan confirmed our hypotheses and were tested against the research model. The results support the theoretical model in explaining how neutralization theory and containment theory may affect an employee¡¦s intention to commit unauthorized computer access. Finally, we found that neutralization is the most important factor to take into account when organizations develop and implement security policies or education which can decrease employees¡¦ intentions to commit unauthorized computer access.

Unauthorized-use is the most difficult problem to government-owned land authorities. Although the land used for military purposes belongs to government-owned land, its reasons for unauthorized-use are still different from those other government-owned land authorities face. Most researches about government-owned land occupations and exclusion focus on the part of the management sector. This study, however, takes both the manager¡¦s and the unauthorized-user viewpoint to discuss the land unauthorized-use problem the Chinese Military Academy faces. After analyzing literatures, interviewing related people, and several case studies, I am able to suggest some practicable solutions based on the present law. This study finds the land belonging to the Chinese Military Academy was taken illegally mostly during the 1950s and the 1970s, before Government-Owned Land Laws were passed. Ninety percent of the unauthorized-user are veterans, and the rest are ordinary people living close to the battalion, who took the land mostly for housing, with a very small percentage for profit. The main reasons are the unauthorized-user complaints of unequal treatment, their financial conditions, and their dependence on the unauthorized-use land. Of course the military authorities¡¦ negligence has made the situation worse. This study also finds that most unauthorized-user ask for alternative housing and compensations, while the military wants to resort to law. Since the R.O.C. Constitution safeguards people¡¦s property right, I try to take the unauthorized-use peoples¡¦ appeal into consideration. This research suggests that the National Defense Act Stipulations 22 and 23 be revised, making it possible for the military authority to entrust the management of its property to related organization. Besides, a special fund can be established to compensate for the loss of the people who were forced to exchange lands during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan. Moreover, the VAC (Veterans Affairs Commission, Executive Yuan, R.O.C.) can use the Fund for Veterans¡¦ Housing (°ê­x°h°£§Ð©x§L¦w¸m°òª÷) to subsidize veterans with housing problems. In this way, we can elastically solve the unauthorized-use problem, help unauthorized-user to live within the law, resolve the conflicts between the military and civilians, and promote the efficient management of land used for national defense purposes.

Thesis (M.Sc.)--Memorial University of Newfoundland, Faculty of Medicine, 1999. / Typescript. Bibliography: leaves 145-163.