The LHCb experiment, based at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, is primarily designed to make precision measurements of the decays of heavy flavour hadrons, such as B and D mesons. This thesis is composed of two parts: the first consists of two studies of LHCb's vertex locator (VELO) and the second describes the development of methods for recording the decay D0->K-mu+nu_mu. The first VELO study involves calibration and monitoring of the gain (i.e. the detector response to input charge from particles). We propose a robust method to measure the gain response of each silicon sensor using calibration bits output by the sensors, and a method to recalibrate the gain simple enough to be followed by non-expert VELO users. This is followed by an investigation into into the prospects of using the VELO to perform particle identification using the characteristic energy deposition of each particle species (dE/dx). Finally, studies into the development of a trigger and a so-called 'stripping line' for recording D0->K-mu+nu_mu decays is presented. The relatively high cross-section for charm decays in LHCb mean this decay (with a branching fraction of 3%) occurs frequently, and the challenge of a trigger is to reduce this to a rate acceptable to write to disk. Finally, based on a sample of data from July and August 2011, the measured q 2 distribution for this decay is compared to the simple single-pole theoretical model, and the pole mass is measured to bem_pole=2.35 + 0.81 - 0.35 GeV/c 2.

This thesis presents a variety of work concerning the design, construction and use of the SLD's vertex detector. SLD's pioneering 120 Mpixel vertex detector, VXD2, was replaced by VXD3, a 307Mpixel CCD vertex detector in January 1996. The motivation for the up-grade detector and its subsquent construction and testing are described in some detail. This work represents the collaborative work of a large number of people. My work was mainly carried out at EEV on the testing of the CCDs and subsequent ladders. VXD3 was commissioned during the 1996 SLD run and performed very close to design specifications. Monitoring the position of VXD3 is crucial for reconstructing the data in the detector for physics analysis. This was carried out using a capacitive wire position monitoring system. The system indicated that VXD3 was very stable during the whole of the 1996 run, except for known controlled movements. VXD3 was aligned globally for each period in-between these known movements using the tracks from e+e- → Z° → hadrons. The structure of three-jet bbg events has been studied using hadronic Z° decays from the 1993-1995 SLD data. Three-jet final states were selected and the CCD-based vertex detector was used to identify two of the jets as a ь or ъ. The distributions of the gluon energy and polar angle with respect to the electron beam direction were examined and were compared with perturbative QCD predictions. If was found that the QCD Parton Shower prediction was needed to describe the data well. These distributions are potentially sensitive to an anomalous b chromomagnetic moment к. к was measured to be -0.031±0.038 0.039(Stat.)±0.003 0.004(Syst.), which is consistent with the Standard Model, with 95% confidence level limit, -0.106 < к < 0.044.

A feasibility study is presented which measures the masses of the chargino X̃₁^± and neutralinos X̃₁⁰ and X̃₂⁰ using the processes of e⁺e⁻→ X̃₁⁺X̃₁^- → X̃₁⁰X̃₁⁰W⁺W⁻ and e⁺e⁻→ X̃₂⁰X̃₂⁰ → X̃₁⁰X₁⁰ZZ at the International Linear Collider. The detector simulation is based on the Silicon Detector (SiD) concept and an integrated luminosity of 500 fb⁻¹ is considered at the centre-of-mass energy of 500 GeV. A template-fitting method is employed to measure the chargino and neutralino masses, which results in uncertainties of 0.16 GeV, 0.5 GeV and 1.0 GeV for the mass of X̃₁⁰, X̃₁^± and X̃₂⁰ respectively. A study on the ISIS2 sensor, a technology for the ILC vertex detector, is also presented. The characteristic of the sensors are studied for both its test structure and main array pixels. The operation conditions are optimized and the sensor successfully demonstrated its capabilities of in-situ charge storage and charge transfer. The charge transfer efficiency is measured to be better than 98%.

The effects of Sr90 beta radiation and Co60 gamma radiation on the operation of EEV buried channel charge coupled devices (CCDs) have been studied. This work was instigated by the need to qualify CCDs for the SLD vertex detector. However, the work is also relevant to other small signal, low noise applications. The results of the batch qualification are presented and the data base of ionising radiation effects on EEV CCDs has been extended to include the effects of irradiation whilst clocking at 180K. Particular attention has been aimed at investigating the charge transfer degradation due to low levels of bulk defects. The measured energy level, capture cross section and introduction rate of the main radiation induced defect agrees well with published results for the Si-E centre. Annealing studies are also presented. A model for the charge transfer degradation is proposed. This includes the effects of temperature, readout rate, signal density and irradiation type and energy. Observations are also presented on the effect of irradiation on the noise characteristics of the single stage output circuit. For low noise applications the output is run in buried channel mode. In this mode the increase in noise is dominated by the change in the operating point of the output MOSFET.

This master thesis describes development and analysis of simulation, reconstruction and alignment for tests of Belle II vertex detector sensors as well as alignment procedure for the vertex detector itself. The first goal is to develop and test software tools which would allow analysis of sensor tests within common Belle II software framework. The second goal is to prepare the alignment chain for the vertex detector, being essential component of the detector calibration. First part of the thesis describes the Belle II experiment and its vertex detector, as well as the experimental beam test of the sensors and the common software framework. The theory behind the used alignment procedure utilizing Millepede II for alignment and General Broken Lines for track fitting is explained. Second part of the thesis then summarizes software tools developed or used and the results reached with these tools with emphasis on the alignment.

La hadronthérapie est une méthode de radiothérapie utilisant des ions (ici le carbone) comme faisceau plutôt que des rayons X plus conventionnels pour le traitement des cancers. Étant donné le parcours spécifique des ions dans la matière, ils permettent de traiter des tumeurs profondes dans des zones délicates telles que le cerveau par exemple. Ceci est complémentaire à tout ce qui existe depuis des dizaines d’années (intervention chirurgicale, rayons X, chimiothérapie). Deux futurs centres de traitement et de recherche (ARCHADE à Caen et ETOILE à Lyon) seront opérationnels en France à partir de 2018 en ce qui concerne ARCHADE afin de profiter des avancées récentes et de poursuivre les recherches sur cette méthode. La perte d’énergie des ions carbone dans la matière suit la loi de Bethe-Bloch, le maximum de dépôt d’énergie se situant dans une zone restreinte appelée « pic de Bragg ». En modulant la position et l’énergie du faisceau, il est possible d’irradier l’ensemble du volume de la tumeur. Cependant, les réactions nucléaires de l’ion carbone dans les tissus entrainent la production de fragments plus légers (H, He, Li etc.) qui déposent leur énergie au-delà du pic de Bragg. Les modèles implémentés dans les codes de simulation couramment utilisés en hadronthérapie (FLUKA, GEANT4 etc.) sont incapables de reproduire en même temps les distributions angulaires des fragments générés ainsi que les distributions en énergie. Le fait de ne pas reproduire fidèlement ce phénomène de fragmentation nuit à la précision des systèmes de planification de traitement utilisés cliniquement. En effet, une mauvaise estimation du processus de fragmentation entraine un biais dans le calcul de la dose déposée dans les cellules saines en arrière du pic de Bragg. Ainsi, afin de mieux contraindre les modèles, deux expériences de mesure de sections efficaces de fragmentation du carbone ont été menées. La première en mai 2011 avec un faisceau à 95MeV/n au GANIL à CAEN avec les collaborateurs du LPC Caen et la seconde en août 2011 avec un faisceau à 400 MeV/n au GSI à Darmstadt, avec la collaboration FIRST. L’expérience E600 étudie la fragmentation des ions du faisceau de carbone à 95 MeV/n dans différentes cibles minces (Au, C, , Ti etc.) correspondant aux différents constituants élémentaires du corps humain. Les différents fragments sont détectés à l’aide de cinq télescopes. Chacun d’eux est constitué de 3 étages (2 détecteurs silicium et un scintillateur CsI) afin de faire des mesures de perte d’énergie et d’énergie totale permettant une identification par la méthode du ΔE-E. Ces télescopes étaient disposés sur des raquettes pilotées à distance afin de pouvoir modifier leur position angulaire par rapport à la position de la cible. Ainsi, les taux de production des différents fragments permettent de remonter aux sections efficaces de fragmentation doublement différentielles (en énergie et en angle). [...] / The hadrontherapy is a radiotherapy method using ions (carbon ions here) instead of the more conventional X-rays for cancer treatment. Deep radioresistant tumour areas, as brain carcinoma for example, can be treated thanks to the specific dosedeposition at the end of the ion path. This is an additional method to older classic ones (surgery, X-rays, chemotherapy). Two hadrontherapy centres for treatment and research are planned in France from 2018 (ARCHADE) in order to benefit from the newest progress and to keep improving this method. Carbon ions energy loss in the matter follows the Bethe-Bloch law. The maximum of energy depth is located in a limited area called “Bragg peak”. By adjusting the beam position and energy, the whole volume of the tumor can be irradiated. Nevertheless, nuclear reactions of carbon ion in tissues generate the production of lighter fragments (H, He, Li etc.) that deposit their energy beyond the Bragg peak. Models implemented in hadrontherapy simulation codes (FLUKA, GEANT4 etc.) cannot reproduce angular distributions of the lighter fragments and energy distributions at the same time. These poor estimations affect the treatment planning systems accuracy that are clinically used.Indeed, a bad estimation of fragmentation process induces a bias in the dose calculation concerning healthy cells beyond the Bragg peak. In order to better constraint models, two experiments based on fragmentation cross-sections measurements have been performed. The first one in may 2011 with a beam at 95 MeV/u (GANIL) in collaboration with the LPC Caen and the second one in august 2011 with a beam at 400 MeV/u (GSI) with the FIRST collaboration. E600 experiment is devoted to the study of carbon ions fragmentation at 95 MeV/u in several thin targets (Au, C, , Ti etc.) corresponding to the basic building blocks of human body. Five telescopes are designed for the fragments detection. Each one is a three-stage detector (2 silicon detectors and one CsI scintillator) that allows energy loss and total energy measurements for the ΔE-E identification method.Telescopes were disposed two by two in the reaction chamber with a remote control of the angular position. From the production rate measurements, the double differential fragmentation cross-sections (energy and angle) can be computed.From the experimental data for + reaction at 95 MeV/u on a 250 μm thick carbon target, all cross-sections were deduced.FIRST experiment uses a very different set-up. It is composed of: a beam monitoring, a vertex detector (CMOS), a calorimeter(KENTROS), a magnet (ALADIN), MUSIC (3 ionization chambers and 4 proportional counters) and a TOF-wall. Generated particles trajectory is reconstructed thanks to the vertex detector + TOF-wall for all fragments emitted with an angle lower than 5° and thanks to the vertex detector + KENTROS for higher angles. In the first case, the ALADIN magnet deflects the trajectory of the particles (MUSIC detector ran out). One 8 mm thick target has been used here. Preliminary results concerning production rates of the different charges, angular distributions and reconstruction efficiencies have been obtained. Heavier fragments mass identification is quite difficult because of the non-working MUSIC detector; it degrades the fragments momentumaccuracy.[...]

Cette thèse est une contribution au document intitulé "Detector Baseline Document (DBD)" décrivant le conceptde détecteur ILD envisagé auprès du collisionneur linéaire international électron-positon ILC (acronyme del'anglais International Linear Collider).Les objectifs de physique de l'ILD nécessitent un détecteur de vertex (VXD) particulièrement léger, rapide et trèsgranulaire permettant d'atteindre une résolution sans précédent sur le paramètre d'impact des trajectoiresreconstruites des particules produites dans les interactions étudiées. Le principal objectif de cette thèse est demontrer comment optimiser les paramètres du VXD dans le cas ou il est composé de Capteurs à Pixels Actifsfabriqués en technologie industrielle CMOS (CAPS). Ce travail a été réalisé en étudiant la sensibilité desperformances d'étiquetage des saveurs lourdes et de la précision sur les rapports d'embranchement hadroniquedu boson de Higgs aux différents paramètres du VXD.Le cahier des charges du VXD, particulièrement ambitieux, a nécessité le développement d'une nouvelletechnologie de capteurs de pixels de silicium, les CAPS, dont le groupe PICSEL de l'IPHC est à l'origine. Lavitesse de lecture et l'influence des paramètres qui régissent la fabrication des capteurs en fonderie ont étéétudiées dans cette thèse, et des prototypesde CAPS ont été caractérisés sur faisceau de particules. Enfin, les performances de trajectométrie d'un VXDcomposé de CAPS a été évalué avec des études de simulation. / This thesis is a contribution to the " Detector Baseline Document ", describing the ILD detector which is intendedfor the International Linear Collider (ILC).The physics goals of the ILD call for a vertex detector (VXD) particularly light, rapid and very granular allowing toreach an unprecedented resolution on the impact parameter of the tracks that reconstruct the particles producedin the studied interactions. The principle goal of this thesis is to show how to optimise the parameters of the VXDin the case that is composed of Active Pixel Sensors manufactured in industrial CMOS technology (CAPS). Thiswork has been realised by studying the sensitivity of the performance of the heavy flavour tagging and theprecision on the hadronic branching fractions of the Higgs boson as a function of different sets of VXDparameters.The specifications of the VXD, particularly ambitious, call for the development of a novel silicon pixel sensorstechnology, the CAPS, which was pioneered by the PICSEL group of IPHC. The readout speed and the influenceof the fabrication parameters have been studied in this thesis, and CAPS prototypes have been characterised intest beams. Finally, the tracking performance of a CAPS based VXD has been evaluated with simulation studies.

This thesis is focused on the alignment studies of the vertex detector during first years of the Belle II detector operation and the first prompt sin 2ϕ1 analysis using the first rel- evant data collected by the detector. Firstly, the Belle II detector and the SuperKEKB accelerator is introduced. Secondly, the software framework and tools operation is ex- plained, then the alignment procedure and developed validation procedures are described in detail. Fourth section reports about the first years of the detector operation. Next three sections are related to different alignment studies during thee different periods of the vertex detector operation: the Phase 2, VXD Commissioning and beginning of the Phase 3 early. The last section covers the time-dependent CP Violation and mixing measurements performed using the data collected prior to the 11en of May 2020. 1

Title: Measurement of Time-Dependent CP Violation in B0 → ηcK0 S at Belle Experi- ment, Optimization Studies of the Belle II Vertex Detector Author: Zbyněk Drásal Department: Institute of Particle and Nuclear Physics Supervisor: Dr. Zdeněk Doležal, IPNP Supervisor's e-mail address: Zdenek.Dolezal@mff.cuni.cz Abstract: This doctoral thesis deals with two independent topics. In the first part we present a measurement of branching ratio(s) and time-dependent CP violation parame- ters in B0 (B± ) → ηcK0 S(K± ), ηc → p¯p. The values of CP violation parameters have been found as follows: sin 2φ1, denoted as an SCP parameter, equals: SCP = 0.68+0.38 −0.46±0.13syst, the direct CP violation parameter, denoted as an ACP , is: ACP = 0.00+0.23 −0.31 ± 0.08syst. These results have been obtained with the final data sample of 772×106 B ¯B pairs collected at Υ(4S) resonance with a Belle detector at the KEKB e+ e− asymmetric collider machine in Japan. In the second part, we present our approach to the Monte Carlo (MC) simula- tion of Belle II vertex detector and its response to high energy particles. Belle II represents an upgrade of current Belle experiment and its designed vertex detector will consist of 2 layers of Depfet pixel detectors (PXD) and 4 layers of double-sided silicon micro-strip detectors (SVD). The MC...

This thesis describes the optimisation of the calorimeter design for collider experiments at the future Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) and the International Linear Collider (ILC). The detector design of these experiments is built around high-granularity Particle Flow Calorimetry that, in contrast to traditional calorimetry, uses the energy measurements for charged particles from the tracking detectors. This can only be realised if calorimetric energy deposits from charged particles can be separated from those of neutral particles. This is made possible with fine granularity calorimeters and sophisticated pattern recognition software, which is provided by the PandoraPFA algorithm. This thesis presents results on Particle Flow calorimetry performance for a number of detector configurations. To obtain these results a new calibration procedure was developed and applied to the detector simulation and reconstruction to ensure optimal performance was achieved for each detector configuration considered. This thesis also describes the development of a software compensation technique that vastly improves the intrinsic energy resolution of a Particle Flow Calorimetry detector. This technique is implemented within the PandoraPFA framework and demonstrates the gains that can be made by fully exploiting the information provided by the fine granularity calorimeters envisaged at a future linear collider. A study of the sensitivity of the CLIC experiment to anomalous gauge couplings that {affect} vector boson scattering processes is presented. These anomalous couplings provide insight into possible beyond standard model physics. This study, which utilises the excellent jet energy resolution from Particle Flow Calorimetry, was performed at centre-of-mass energies of 1.4 TeV and 3 TeV with integrated luminosities of 1.5$\text{ab}^{-1}$ and 2$\text{ab}^{-1}$ respectively. The precision achievable at CLIC is shown to be approximately one to two orders of magnitude better than that currently offered by the LHC. In addition, a study into various technology options for the CLIC vertex detector is described.