Gene regulation by transcription factors are one of the key processes that are important to sustain all kinds of life. In the prokaryote Escherichia coli this has shown to especially crucial. The operator sequence to which these transcription factors bind to are very small in comparison to the whole genome of E. coli, thus the question becomes how these proteins can find these sequences quickly. One particularly well-studied transcription factor in this regard is the lac repressor. It has been shown that this transcription factors finds its operators faster than the limit of three dimensional diffusion. The leading model for how the repressor does that is facilitated diffusion and this model has gained more experimental evidence, particularly using single-molecule fluorescence microscopy. This study aimed at measuring the unspecific binding time between the lac repressor and DNA in vivo, but in the end the project evolved to trying to establish a single-molecule tracking assay of the repressor in vivo. In this study a mutant of the repressor was expressed and purified, labelled with a synthetic fluorophore, electroporated into E. coli and tracking was performed under a microscope. One of the three types of experiments were partially analysed with an image analysis software. Unfortunately, analysis was not completed for all experiments which made it difficult to compare the results. In the end the data was compared by eye while also using the results from image analysis. With slight optimism it can be concluded that the assay worked, but it needs more development.

Aquesta tesi es centra en la caracterització funcional d'una proteïna de xoc de calor de baix pes molecular (Small Heat Shock Protein - sHSP) de classe I de surera pel que fa a la seva capacitat per protegir les cèl·lules de l'estrès i per estabilitzar les membranes. Les sHsps són proteïnes que s'expressen en condicions d'estrès cel·lular. Encara que certs aspectes funcionals de les sHsps són ben coneguts, el nostre treball aporta informacions noves sobre el paper de les diferents regions de la proteïna, especialment de la regió N-terminal.L'objectiu concret d'aquest treball és determinar la funció termoprotectora de QsHsp17.4-CI, una sHsp de classe I oobtinguda a partir de les cèl·lules de fel·lema d'alzina surera, en un model bacterià i analitzar la importància de les diferents regions de la proteïna en aquesta funció. Amb aquesta finalitat s'han dissenyat dues proteïnes parcials derivades de QsHsp17.4-CI: una a la que li falta la regió N-terminal (C105) i una altra amb pràcticament tot el domini -cristal·lí deleccionat (N61), i una tercera, derivada de QsHs10-CI, a la que li falta la meitat del domini -cristal·lí (Hsp10). També s'estudia la possible capacitat estabilitzadora de membranes i la capacitat de modificar l'expressió d'altres Hsps quan s'expressa de forma heteròloga.Els nostres resultats demostren que l'expressió de QsHsp17.4-CI protegeix a les cèl·lules d'E.coli de l'estrès tèrmic alhora que la regió N-terminal i la regió consens II del domini -cristal·lí són imprescindibles per aquesta funció de protecció. En relació a un possible paper en les membranes, els estudis de localització subcel·lular mostren que QsHsp17.4-CI colocalitza amb la fracció membranes i que la regió N-terminal de la proteïna és responsable d'aquesta colocalització. No s'ha pogut demostrar, però, que la localització amb la membrana estigui associada a un efecte protector d'aquesta: en cap cas la sobrexpressió de les proteïnes modifica la composició d'àcids grassos i només N61, que no té acció termoprotectora, altera l'estat fisico-químic de la membrana. En estudis d'expressió de novo en E.coli s'ha observat que, a diferència de les altres proteïnes heteròlogues, N61 activa l'expressió de la majoria de Hsps d'E.coli fent pensar en una possible relació entre l'estat físic de la membrana i l'activació de la resposta a l'estrès.En resum, en aquest treball hem provat la capacitat protectora de QsHsp17.4 i aportem noves dades sobre la importància de la regió N-terminal i la regió consens II del domini -cristal·lí en aquesta funció. Per altra banda, es suggereix que QsHsp17.4 podria interaccionar amb la membrana d'E.coli i que la regió N-terminal seria imprescindible per aquesta interacció. Finalment hem determinat que les proteïnes que provoquen variacions en l'estat de fluïdesa de la membrana poden activar la resposta al xoc de calor per part de la cèl·lula bacteriana. / This thesis is focused in the functional studies of a Small Heat Shock Protein (sHsp). sHsps are expressed under stress conditions. Although some functional aspects of these proteins are known, our work aport new data about the role of the different protein regions, especially the N-terminal region. The aim of this work is to demonstrate a thermotolerance effect of QsHsp17.4-CI in bacterial cells and to analyze the importance of the protein regions in this function. To achieve this objective two deletion mutants derived from QsHsp17.4-CI were designed: a protein lacking the N-terminal region (C105) and a protein where the entire -cristallin domain is missing (N61) and a third mutant, derived from QsHsp10-CI, that bears half of the -cristallin domain (Hsp10). To better understand the functional mechanism of sHsps we study the membrane stabilizing capacity of QsHsp17.4-CI as well as its capacity to modify other Hsps expression.Our results demonstrate that the expression of QsHsp17.4-CI protects E.coli cells from a heat shock and that the N-terminal region and the consensus region II of the -cristallin domain are necessary for this protective function. Related to a possible role in membranes, location studies suggest that QsHsp17.4-CI colocalizes with cell membrane fraction and that N-terminal region is important for this location. However, no relation between membrane localization and a protective effect has been demonstrated: Protein overexpression does not modify membrane fatty acid composition and only N61, which has no thermoprotection, changes membrane physical state. Studies of E.coli de novo synthesis show that, unlike the other recombinant proteins, the overexpression of N61 activates the expression of almost all E.coli Hsps suggesting a possible relation between membrane physical state and the activation of the heat shock response.As summary, in this work we have demonstrated the thermoprotective capacity of QsHsp17.4-CI and we contribute with new data about the importance of N-terminal region and consensus region II of -cristallin domain for this function. On the other hand, we suggest the possibility that QsHsp17.4-CI interacts with membrane and that N-terminal region is important for this interaction. Lastly, we have observed how changes in membranes fluidity state can activate heat shock response in bacterial cells.

Les champs récepteurs corticaux se réorganisent en réponse aux changements de l'environnement. Par exemple, suite à une lésion périphérique, les modalités sensorielles préservées gagnent de l'espace cortical au détriment de celles lésées. L'étude du cortex somatosensoriel en tonneau des rongeurs a fourni des données importantes pour la compréhension des mécanismes synaptiques à l'origine de cette réorganisation corticale. En condition normale, les neurones de chaque colonne corticale répondent préférentiellement à la stimulation d'une seule vibrisse principale ("Principal Whisker, PW"). Au contraire, suite à l'amputation de l'ensemble des vibrisses sauf une ("Single Whisker Experience, SWE"), les neurones des colonnes associées aux vibrisses amputées répondent à la stimulation de la vibrisse conservée, à l'origine du renforcement et de l'expansion des représentations corticales des vibrisses conservées. Bien que des preuves indirectes aient révélées un rôle de la potentialisation à long terme ("Long-Term Potentiation, LTP") de synapses préexistantes dans la modification des cartes corticales, probablement via une augmentation du nombre des récepteurs AMPA (AMPARs) aux synapses, un lien direct entre la LTP, la réorganisation des cartes corticales, et l'adaptation des comportements sensori-moteurs suite à une altération des entrées sensorielles n'a pas encore été démontré. L'objectif de cette thèse a donc été de mettre en évidence cette relation de façon expérimentale et en condition physiologique. Pour cela, nous avons mis au point une stratégie in vivo combinant des enregistrements électrophysiologiques, de l'imagerie biphotonique et l'analyse du comportement d'exploration chez la souris contrôle ("Full Whisker Experience, FWE) et amputée de certaines vibrisses (SWE). Nous avons d'abord confirmé que la stimulation rythmique de la PW ("Rhytmic Whisker Swtimulation, RWS") renforce les synapses excitatrices (RWS-LTP) in vivo des souris anesthésiées FWE. Au contraire des souris FWE, les neurones pyramidaux des souris SWE présentent une augmentation de l'excitabilité neuronale et une absence de RWS-LTP, indiquant ainsi que les synapses corticales associées à la vibrisse intacte ont été potentialisées en réponse au protocole SWE. Pour mieux comprendre l'implication de la RWS-LTP dans la réorganisation des cartes corticales et l'adaptation des comportements sensori-moteurs, nous avons développé une nouvelle approche pour manipuler la LTP in vivo grâce à l'immobilisation des AMPARs par des anticorps extracellulaires ("cross-linking"). En effet, notre équipe a montré précédemment que le cross-linking des AMPARs empêche la LTP in vitro. Par ailleurs, une accumulation des AMPARs au niveau post-synaptique a été démontrée in vivo par imagerie biphotonique au cours d'une stimulation RWS, suggérant un rôle de la mobilité de ces récepteurs dans cette RWS-LTP. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons démontré que le cross-linking des AMPARs in vivo bloque également l'expression de la RWS-LTP, mais sans affecter la transmission synaptique basale, ni l'induction de la RWS-LTP, indiquant ainsi que la mobilité des AMPARs est également fondamental pour l'expression de la LTP in vivo. De façon importante, le cross-linking des AMPARs de façon chronique, au cours du SWE, permet non seulement de rétablir la RWS-LTP et l'excitabilité neuronale, et donc de bloquer la réorganisation corticale, mais aussi de modifier les capacités de récupération sensori-motrices des souris amputées. Dans l'ensemble, nos données démontrent pour la première fois un rôle critique et direct de la RWS-LTP dans le réarrangement des circuits en réponse à l'amputation de certaines vibrisses. La réorganisation des cartes corticales serait ainsi assurée par le renforcement de la transmission synaptique, et constituerait alors un mécanisme compensatoire pour optimiser le comportement sensorimoteur de l'animal lors de l'altération des entrées sensorielles. / Neuronal receptive fields in the cerebral cortex change in response to peripheral injury, with active modalities gaining cortical space at the expense of less active ones. Experiments on the mouse whisker-to-barrel cortex system provided important evidences about the synaptic mechanisms driving this cortical remapping. Under normal conditions, neurons in each barrel-column have receptive fields that are strongly tuned towards one principal whisker (PW). However, trimming all the whiskers except one (single-whisker experience, SWE) causes layer (L) 2/3 pyramidal neurons located in the deprived and spared-related columns to increase their response towards the spared input. This results in a strengthening and expansion of the spared whisker representation within the barrel sensory map. Indirect evidences suggest that these cortical alterations might depend on the activity-dependent potentiation of pre-existing excitatory synapses (LTP), likely through increased levels of postsynaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs). However, a clear link between LTP, cortical remapping, and the adaptation of sensorimotor skills following altered sensory experience has not yet convincingly been demonstrated. Here, we combined in vivo whole-cell recordings, 2-Photon calcium imaging and a whisker-dependent behavior protocol to directly demonstrate this relationship. It has been described that rhythmic whisker stimulation potentiates cortical synapses (RWS-LTP) in vivo. An accumulation of postsynaptic AMPARs during similar sensory stimulation was also reported by imaging evidences. Our data demonstrates that this potentiation is occluded by SWE, suggesting that cortical synapses are already potentiated by this trimming protocol. This is translated into an increased neuronal excitability in the spared column and sensorimotor recovery by the spared whisker. To better understand the implication of LTP in cortical remapping, we developed a novel approach to manipulate LTP in vivo without affecting overall circuit properties. Our team showed previously that the blockage of AMPARs synaptic recruitment by extracellular antibody cross-linking prevents LTP in vitro. Here, we report that in vivo cross-linking of AMPARs blocks the expression but not the induction of RWS-LTP, suggesting that the synaptic recruitment of AMPARs is fundamental for in vivo LTP as well. Moreover, chronic AMPAR cross-linking during SWE reverts RWS-LTP occlusion and the increased neuronal excitability caused by whisker trimming. As consequence, the sensorimotor performance by the spared whisker is permanently impaired by the blockage of cortical remapping. Altogether, these evidences led us to define a critical role for synaptic LTP on circuit re-arrangement after whisker trimming. Our data shows that LTP-driven cortical remapping is a compensatory mechanism to optimize animal’s sensorimotor behavior upon altered sensory experience.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) can induce osteoblast differentiation during bone formation and repair. BMP-2 is currently the most used BMP in delivery systems (DSs) for growth factors. Approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, BMP-2 and type I collagen are already used in orthopaedic clinical applications. Recently, studies demontrated that BMP-9 has a higher osteogenic potential than BMP-2. However, high purification costs of BMPs limit their use. So, alternatives such as peptides derived from BMPs are studied. We have developped a peptide derived from the knuckle epitope of human BMP-9 (pBMP-9) which inhibits the proliferation of murine preosteoblasts MC3T3-E1 and increases their differentiation when used at 400 ng/mL. This study first compares in vitro the effects of equimolar concentrations (1.92 nM) of BMP-2, BMP-9 or pBMP-9 on the differentiation of MC3T3-E1 in serum-free medium. Like BMP-2, BMP-9 and pBMP-9 both activate Smads signaling pathway within 1h. In contrary to BMP-2, the Smad phosphorylation induced by BMP-9 and pBMP-9 is not prevented by noggin, an extracellular antagonist of BMP-2. Moreover, BMP-9 and pBMP-9 increase dose dependently alkaline phosphatase activity, an early marker of osteoblast differentiation within 1 day. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis demonstrates that BMP-2, BMP-9 and pBMP-9 all activate the transcription of Runx2, Osterix, type I collagen a1 chain and Osteocalcin within 6 days. Osteocalcin is the only truly osteoblast-specific gene that encodes for a protein required for Ca[superscript 2+] deposition in the extracellular matrix and subsequent mineralization. The peptide pBMP-9 allows a slight deposition of calcium ions (Ca[superscript 2+]) in the extracellular matrix of cells within 18 days. To favor efficiency of these molecules, DSs for BMP-9 or pBMP-9 using type I collagen gel or chitosan matrix have been studied. Collagen and chitosan DSs release in vitro within 1h about 35% and 80% of the initial dose of BMP-9 respectively. A slower release of pBMP-9 is observed in both DSs. The release of BMP-9 and pBMP-9 from both DSs follows Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetics. Collagen DS containing 3.84 nM BMP-2, BMP-9 or pBMP-9 activates in vitro the expression of osteogenic genes in MC3T3-E1 cells within 6 days. 6.35 [micro]g BMP-9 or 100 [micro]g pBMP-9 incorporated into chitosan DS can induce in vivo bone formation in C57BL/6 mouse quadriceps muscles within 24 days. Furthermore, collagen DS is less efficient than chitosan DS. Since BMPs can also influence adipogenic cell lineages, the effects of 3.84 nM BMP-2, BMP-9 or pBMP-9 have been studied on human white preadipocytes (HWP). pBMP-9 dose dependently reduces the proliferation of HWP without affecting the number of apoptotic cells. Incubation for 1h with BMPs or pBMP-9 activates the Smad pathway. These molecules also enhance the levels of the mRNA of the adipogenic markers aP2 and adipoQ and increase the number of lipid vesicles within 7 days in adipogenic differentiation (AD) serum-free medium containing ciglitazone. Thus, pBMP-9 seems a promising replacement for costly BMP in tissue engineering applications since this molecule can favor osteogenic differentiation of preosteoblasts and adipogenic differentiation of preadipocytes in serum-free medium.

Oxytocin has established roles in parturition and lactation, but can also be released in response to non-reproductive stimuli, such as hyperosmolarity and stress. As a majority of appetite regulating peptides activate the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal stress axis, and oxytocin is also a stress hormone in the rat, it was hypothesized that the oxytocin system in the neurohypophysial axis could be a target for appetite-regulating peptides of central and peripheral origin. The effects of central administration of neuropeptide Y (NPY; a central orexigenic peptide and a central and peripheral neurotransmitter co-released with noradrenaline; n=5 rats) and systemic administration of secretin (a peripheral gut peptide belonging to the family of brain-gut peptides; n=26) and leptin (a peripheral anorexigenic peptide from adipose tissue; n=23) on the electrical activity of SON oxytocin neurones in vivo were studied in urethane-anaesthetized female rats with extracellular recording. Effects were compared with the excitatory responses to cholecystokinin (CCK; a peripheral anorexigenic gut peptide; n=45). Influences of fasting and pregnancy and effects of these peptides on the activity of SON vasopressin neurones were also studied. Results: (1) All the central and peripheral appetite peptides tested increased the electrical activity of SON oxytocin neurones. (a) NPY: Basal firing rate of 3.5 ± 1.05 (mean ± s.e.m) spikes/s was increased by 1 ± 0.45 spikes/s 1min after NPY (basal vs 0-10min post-NPY: P=0.03, paired t-test; n=5). (b) Secretin: Basal rate of 4.1 ± 0.4 spikes/s was increased by 1.7 ± 0.2 spikes/s 2.5min after secretin (basal vs 0-10min post-secretin: P<0.001, paired t-test; n=26). (c) Leptin: Basal rate of 3.4 ± 0.4 spikes/s was increased by 0.4 ± 0.08 spikes/s 1.5min after leptin (basal vs 0-10min post-leptin: P=0.01, paired t-test; n=23). (d) CCK: Basal rate of 3.6 ± 0.3 spikes/s was increased by 1.1 ± 0.15 spikes/s 1min after CCK (basal vs 0-10min post- CCK: P<0.001, Wilcoxon signed rank test; n=45). (2) Secretin induced excitatory responses were greater than to other peptides (P<0.001, Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks). (3) Secretin dose-dependently increased SON oxytocin neurone electrical activity and peripheral oxytocin release in anaesthetized rats. (4) Intracerebroventricular infusion and microdialysis studies with benoxathian (α1 adrenergic antagonist) revealed that secretininduced excitation of SON oxytocin and vasopressin neurones involves central excitatory noradrenergic pathways. (5) Fasting for 18h did not alter the excitation of SON oxytocin neurones induced by secretin, CCK and leptin. (6) The pathway leading to excitation of oxytocin neurones by CCK was not influenced by prior leptin administration. (7) SON oxytocin neurones were responsive to leptin during late pregnancy. (8) NPY-induced excitation of oxytocin neurones was intact in anaesthetised late pregnant rats, contrasting with attenuated oxytocin secretory responses observed previously in conscious rats. (9) Systemic NPY excited SON oxytocin neurones. (10) Systemic CCK administration either inhibited (77%) or did not affect (23%) SON vasopressin neurones, while leptin had no significant effect, and responses to secretin were predominantly excitatory (67%). Systemic NPY inhibited vasopressin neurones, but central NPY was ineffective. Conclusion: Appetite peptides target SON oxytocin neurones. Postprandially released secretin and leptin might, like CCK, induce peripheral oxytocin release, so as to regulate water and electrolyte homeostasis, which is inevitably disturbed during feeding. Any central release of oxytocin induced by these peptides, might regulate feeding behaviour and satiety. Oxytocin neurone excitation induced by NPY may be relevant during stress responses.

Angiogenesis is the growth of new blood vessels from existing vasculature; it requires the breakdown of existing blood vessel walls followed by the migration and proliferation of endothelial cells to form the new vessels. It is a complex process that is regulated by many pro- and anti-angiogenic factors and the roles of some of these factors are still unclear. Angiogenesis is a key feature of many pathological conditions including cancer, polycystic ovary syndrome and endometriosis so is an area of great research interest. There are several methods currently available for the study of angiogenesis, both in vitro and in vivo, and whilst all of these methods have enhanced understanding of angiogenesis, they also have limitations. The ovary is an excellent model for the study of angiogenesis as it undergoes intense vascular morphogenesis in a cyclical manner. The female reproductive system is unique as no other healthy adult tissue undergoes spontaneous angiogenesis. The tissues in the ovary undergo constant remodelling during both folliculogenesis and the formation and regression of the corpus luteum. Blood vessels are recruited from the ovarian stroma at the preantral stage to form vascular sheaths, in the thecal layer, which surround the developing follicle and supply nutrients, hormones and allow gaseous exchange. As follicular development progresses to the antral stage, when gonadotrophin-dependence is established, increased angiogenesis is essential to sustain development of the rapidly expanding follicle. Previous research into ovarian angiogenesis has focussed on the corpus luteum but the mechanisms of the regulation of angiogenesis during folliculogenesis need further elucidation. The work in this thesis aims to develop and utilise an in vitro angiogenesis assay using the culture of intact preantral and early antral follicles to provide a new approach to the study of follicular angiogenesis. During the course of this thesis this assay was utilised to investigate the effect of various factors on follicular angiogenesis and ovarian function. The role of the putative anti-angiogenic factor thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) in the regulation of physiological angiogenesis was investigated using the in vitro angiogenesis assay developed during the course of this thesis and the role of TSP-1 in normal ovarian function was investigated using the culture of isolated granulosa cells. The results suggest that TSP-1 is able to inhibit angiogenesis and that it has an extravascular role in the ovary, in vitro. These findings were extended to an in vivo angiogenesis model where follicular angiogenesis was assessed by quantitative immunohistochemistry for bromodeoxyuridine and the endothelial cell marker CD31. The extravascular role for TSP-1 was also further investigated in vivo and was assessed by quantitative immunohistochemistry for activated caspase-3. The results confirmed the findings of the in vitro study, indicating that TSP-1 has antiangiogenic action and acts to clear non-dominant follicles from the ovary through the induction of atresia. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is the main factor involved in stimulating angiogenesis and many advances have been made into elucidating the role, and the mechanisms of action, of VEGF on angiogenesis. Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) is considered to be one of the main factors acting in concert with VEGF to stabilise new blood vessels and its role in angiogenesis has been the subject of much discussion and controversy. This thesis investigates the effects of Ang-1 on follicular angiogenesis and development, using the in vitro angiogenesis assay, granulosa cell culture and RNA knockdown experiments. The results have shown that Ang-1 can induce follicular angiogenesis at high doses and that at low doses stimulates prosurvival pathways and inhibits apoptotic mediators. This thesis describes a novel in vitro culture system for the study of angiogenesis in ovarian follicles. Using this system the effects of various factors on follicular angiogenesis and on follicle development and survival have been investigated. Investigations into the mechanisms of action of these factors have also been performed. These studies have improved understanding of the regulation of follicular angiogenesis and have indicated extravascular roles for angiogenic factors in the ovary. Since angiogenesis is a key feature of many pathological conditions, the ability to manipulate angiogenesis and to investigate and quantify the effects of proor anti-angiogenic compounds may have important clinical implications.

La biologie de l'ovocyte canin est très différente de celle des autres espèces mammifères : en particulier, la fin de la maturation ovocytaire dans le follicule se déroule en présence d'une forte concentration en progestérone (lutéinisation préovulatoire) et l'ovulation libère un ovocyte en prophase I, qui n'atteindra le stade métaphase II qu'au bout de 48 à 60 heures de transit oviductal. Parallèlement, les taux de maturation obtenus in vitro chez la chienne sont très faibles. Le but de ce travail était de fournir une description ultrastructurale de la maturation ovocytaire canine in vivo (avant le pic de LH jusqu'à 105 heures post ovulation) et d'y comparer l'évolution des ovocytes mis en maturation in vitro. In vivo, nos résultats en microscopie électronique à transmission montrent que l'ovocyte canin suit globalement le modèle de maturation ovocytaire des mammifères, à l'exception de l'existence d'une période de réactivation transcriptionnelle entre 24 et 48 heures post ovulation. Nous avons mis en évidence, grâce à une étude quantificative de l'incorporation de BrUTP, une activité transcriptionnelle très intense pendant cette période, activité à la fois nucléoplasmique et nucléolaire. Ni le pic de LH ni l'ovulation ne se révèlent suivis de modifications ultrastructurales importantes. Ils ne sont associés respectivement qu'à l'expansion et à la recompaction du cumulus. Les signaux de régulation de la méiose chez la chienne restent donc inconnus. In vitro, l'examen ultrastructural montre que les ovocytes issus d'ovaires d'anoestrus sont très immatures. La comparaison avec les formes observées in vivo indique que les ovocytes qui n'achèvent pas leur méiose in vitro (VG et métaphase I) sont simplement interrompus dans leur maturation et ne présentent pas de formes aberrantes. Quant aux ovocytes ayant atteint le stade métaphase II in vitro, ils montrent un très faible degré de maturation cytoplasmique.

Recent approaches in depression therapeutics include triple reuptake inhibitors, drugs that target three monoamine systems. Using in vivo electrophysiological and microdialysis techniques, the effects of 2- and 14-day treatments of escitalopram, nomifensine and the co-administration of these two drugs (TRI) were examined in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Short- and long-term TRI administration decreased NE firing and had no effect on DA neurons. Normal 5-HT firing rates were maintained after 2-day TRI administration compared to the robust inhibitory action of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Escitalopram treatment enhanced the tonic activation of the 5-HT1A receptors given the increase in firing observed following WAY100635 administration. Nomifensine treatment enhanced tonic activation of the α2–adrenoceptors following idazoxan administration. TRI treatment caused a robust increase in extracellular DA levels that was in part mediated by a serotonergic contribution. Therapeutic effects of the drugs examined in this study may be due to the enhancement of 5-HT, NE and/or DA neurotransmission.

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