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<p>Sekretessbelagd</p>

Sekretessbelagd

The objective of this doctoral thesis is to develop, engineer and investigate an amorphous metal tungsten nitride (aWNx) and to study its functionality for applications focused on electromechanical system at the nano-scale. Charge transport based solid state device oriented complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) electronics have reached a level where they are scaled down to nearly their fundamental limits regarding switching speed, off state power consumption and the on state power consumption due to the fundamental limitation of sub-threshold slope (SS) remains at 60 mV/dec. NEM switch theoretically and practically offers the steepest sub-threshold slope and practically has shown zero static power consumption due to their physical isolation originated from the nature of their mechanical operation. Fundamental challenges remain with NEM switches in context of their performance and reliability: (i) necessity of lower pull-in voltage comparable to CMOS technology; (ii) operation in ambient/air; (iii) increased ON current and decreased ON resistance; (iv) scaling of devices and improved mechanical and electrical contacts; and (v) high endurance. The “perfect” NEM switch should overcome all the above-mentioned challenges. Here, we show such a NEM switch fabricated with aWNx to show (i) sub-0.3-volt operation; (ii) operation in air and vacuum; (iii) ON current as high as 0.5 mA and ON resistance lower than 5 kΩ; (iv) improved mechanical contact; and the most importantly (v) continuous switching of 8 trillion cycles for more than 10 days with the highest switching speed is 30 nanosecond without hysteresis. In addition, tungsten nitride could be the modern life vine by fulfilling the demand of biodegradable material for sustainable life regime. Transient electronics is a form of biodegradable electronics as it is physically disappearing totally or partially after performing the required function. The fabricated aWNx suites this category very well, despite not being a universal bio-element. It has been found that aWNx dissolves in ground water with a rate of ≈ 20-60 nm h-1. This means that a 100 nm thick aWNx disappears in ground water in less than a day and three days are enough to dissolve completely a 300 nm thickness device.

Perovskite solar cells are part of third generation of solar cells and thanks to their atractive properties they are potencional candidates for replacement of silicon solar cells. Inverted planar structure of perovskite solar cells is possible to prepare by low temperature methods and by solution processing techniques. Main aim of this thesis was to prepare and characterize inverted planar perovskite solr cells with a different modification of structure. Perovskite solar cells was prepared with following structures: reference perovskite solar cells, perovskite solar cells with only a perovskite layer, perovskite solar cell without electron transport and perovskite solar cell without hole transport layer. They were prepared simultaneously by spin coating. Methods used for a characterisation of a parameters of this cells were current-voltage characteristic, impedance spektroskopy, meassure of external quantum efficiency and electrolumiscence. Reference perovskite solar cell reached best results folowed by solar cell without hole transport layer. Lowest results were gained by perovskite solar cell without electron transport layer and perovskite solar cell with only perovskite layer, where increased recombination and acumulation of charge were observed,

A smart grid cost/benefit analysis answers a series of economic questions that address the incremental benefits of each stage or decision point. Each stage of the economic analysis provides information about the incremental benefits of that stage with respect to the previous stage. With this approach stages that provide little or no economic benefits can be identified. In this study there are series of applications,-including quasi-steady state power flows over time-varying loads and costs of service, Monte Carlo simulations, reconfiguration for restoration, and coordinated control - that are used to evaluate the cost-benefits of a series of smart grid investments. In the electric power system planning process, engineers seek to identify the most cost-effective means of serving the load within reliability and power quality criteria. In order to accurately assess the cost of a given project, the feeder losses must be calculated. In the past, the feeder losses were estimated based upon the peak load and a calculated load factor for the year. The cost of these losses would then be calculated based upon an expected, fixed per-kWh generation cost. This dissertation presents a more accurate means of calculating the cost of losses, using hourly feeder load information and time-varying electric energy cost data. The work here attempts to quantify the improvement in high accuracy and presents an example where the economic evaluation of a planning project requires the more accurate loss calculation. Smart grid investments can also affect response to equipment failures where there are two types of responses to consider -blue-sky day and storm. Storm response and power restoration can be very expensive for electric utilities. The deployment of automated switches can benefit the utility by decreasing storm restoration hours. The automated switches also improve system reliably by decreasing customer interruption duration. In this dissertation a Monte Carlo simulation is used to mimic storm equipment failure events, followed by reconfiguration for restoration and power flow evaluations. The Monte Carlo simulation is driven by actual storm statistics taken from 89 different storms, where equipment failure rates are time varying. The customer outage status and durations are examined. Changes in reliability for the system with and without automated switching devices are investigated. Time varying coordinated control of Conservation Voltage Reduction (CVR) is implemented. The coordinated control runs in the control center and makes use of measurements from throughout the system to determine control settings that move the system toward optimum performance as the load varies. The coordinated control provides set points to local controllers. A major difference between the coordinated control and local control is the set points provided by the coordinated control are time varying. Reduction of energy and losses of coordinated control are compared with local control. Also eliminating low voltage problems with coordinated control are addressed. An overall economic study is implemented in the final stage of the work. A series of five evaluations of the economic benefits of smart grid automation investments are investigated. Here benefits that can be quantified in terms of dollar savings are considered here referred to as "hard dollar" benefits. Smart Grid investment evaluations to be considered include investments in improved efficiency, more cost effective use of existing system capacity with automated switches, and coordinated control of capacitor banks and voltage regulators. These Smart Grid evaluations are sequentially ordered, resulting in a series of incremental hard dollar benefits. Hard dollar benefits come from improved efficiency, delaying large capital equipment investments, shortened storm restoration times, and reduced customer energy use. The evaluation shows that when time varying loads are considered in the design, investments in automation can improve performance and significantly lower costs resulting in "hard dollar" savings. / Ph. D.

The variable nature of photovoltaic (PV) generation can cause voltage fluctuations in power distribution systems. Feedback control can be used to minimize the voltage fluctuations. This thesis presents the results obtained from comparing the control performance of two types of PV generation feedback control, namely Volt-VAR control and constant power factor control. A three minute PV generation transient is used to evaluate controller performance, where the transient data used originated from one second measurements taken on an actual PV generator. Using the three minute transient, a set of parametric studies are performed on both feedback control strategies. The performance of the control strategies are compared as to voltage control on the distribution feeder and also to the effect that the control may have on transmission system voltage. In considering transmission system voltage, the reactive power drawn from the substation during the transient is evaluated. Simulation results suggest that the choice of control to be implemented should be based on both transmission and distribution system operational concerns. / Master of Science

As inverter-based distributed energy resources (DERs) such as photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage system (BESS) penetrate within the distribution system. New challenges regarding how to utilize these devices to improve power quality arises. Before, PV systems were required to disconnect from the grid during a large disturbance, but now smart inverters are required to have dynamically controlled functions that allows them to remain connected to the grid. Monitoring power flow at the point of common coupling is one of the many functions the controller should perform. Smart inverters can inject active power to pick up critical load or inject reactive power to regulate voltage within the electric grid. In this context, this thesis focuses on a high level and local control design that incorporates DERs. Different controllers are implemented to stabilize the microgrid in an Islanding and resiliency mode. The microgrid can be used as a resiliency source when the distribution is unavailable. An average model in the D-Q frame is calculated to analyze the inherent dynamics of the current controller for the point of common coupling (PCC). The space vector approach is applied to design the voltage and frequency controller. Secondly, using inverters for Volt/VAR control (VVC) can provide a faster response for voltage regulation than traditional voltage regulation devices. Another objective of this research is to demonstrate how smart inverters and capacitor banks in the system can be used to eliminate the voltage deviation. A mixed-integer quadratic problem (MIQP) is formulated to determine the amount of reactive power that should be injected or absorbed at the appropriate nodes by inverter. The Big M method is used to address the nonconvex problem. This contribution can be used by distribution operators to minimize the voltage deviation in the system. / Master of Science / Reliable power supply from the electric grid is an essential part of modern life. This critical infrastructure can be vulnerable to cascading failures or natural disasters. A solution to improve power systems resilience can be through microgrids. A microgrid is a small network of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources (DERs) such as microturbines, wind power, solar power, or traditional internal combustion engines. A microgrid can operate being connected or disconnected from the grid. This research emphases on the potentially use of a Microgrid as a resiliency source during grid restoration to pick up critical load. In this research, controllers are designed to pick up critical loads (i.e hospitals, street lights and military bases) from the distribution system in case the electric grid is unavailable. This case study includes the design of a Microgrid and it is being tested for its feasibility in an actual integration with the electric grid. Once the grid is restored the synchronization between the microgrid and electric must be conducted. Synchronization is a crucial task. An abnormal synchronization can cause a disturbance in the system, damage equipment, and overall lead to additional system outages. This thesis develops various controllers to conduct proper synchronization. Interconnecting inverter-based distributed energy resources (DERs) such as photovoltaic and battery storage within the distribution system can use the electronic devices to improve power quality. This research focuses on using these devices to improve the voltage profile within the distribution system and the frequency within the Microgrid.

Atualmente, as concessionárias de energia enfrentam vários desafios na tentativa de fornecer energia com qualidade e confiabilidade, por exemplo, redes de distribuição com pouco monitoramento e controle, envelhecimento dos ativos, atender a crescente demanda dos consumidores e satisfazer padrões de qualidade, entre outros. No Brasil, para atingir os índices de qualidade no fornecimento de energia estabelecidos pela Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL), tem-se como alternativa aumentar a inteligência da rede com sistemas de tecnologia de informação (TI), além de utilizar Dispositivos Eletrônicos Inteligentes (IEDs), medidores inteligentes e sensores. Adicionalmente é necessário o emprego de uma infraestrutura de comunicação que forneça uma visibilidade abrangente das condições de carga e do estado do sistema de distribuição, permitindo fazer uso de técnicas de otimização e tomada de decisão para aumento da inteligência. O controle da tensão e o gerenciamento da potência reativa (Volt/VAr) são práticas de automação que podem ser empregadas nos sistemas de distribuição. Estas práticas ajudam a aumentar o benefício, a confiabilidade e a eficiência no fornecimento da qualidade do produto, minimizando os custos de operação e manutenção nas concessionárias. Na presente dissertação foi desenvolvida uma metodologia de controle Volt/VAr descentralizado (subestação), por meio da coordenação e controle dos transformadores com mudança de tap sob carga - LTC, dos bancos de capacitores localizados na subestação e ao longo dos alimentadores, bem como dos reguladores de tensão instalados ao longo dos alimentadores. Destaca-se a utilização da técnica de Estimação de Estados, a qual possibilita o uso da metodologia de controle Volt/VAr em tempo real. O algoritmo de otimização desenvolvido neste trabalho foi implementado através de simulações numa rede teste e numa rede real que permitem mostrar o potencial da formulação matemática desenvolvida. Os resultados da metodologia proposta comprovam a melhoria do perfil de tensão dos alimentadores da rede testada ao longo do dia, assim como uma diminuição das perdas técnicas, as quais chegaram a diminuir 7% em energia. Estes resultados foram alcançados sem ultrapassar a quantidade de operações definidas por dia nos diferentes dispositivos de controle. / Currently, power utilities face challenges in order to provide energy considering minimum requirements of power quality and reliability due to the absence of control and monitoring infrastructure, aging assets, growing demand, amongst others. In Brazil, the Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica (ANEEL) establishes specific power quality and reliability indices. Power utilities should attend the limits for those indices by improving intelligence of network using IT systems, installing Intelligent Electric Devices (IEDs), smart meters and sensors, amongst others. Additionally, communication infrastructure is needed to provide the monitoring of load conditions and distribution system state. Optimization and decision-making tools are important for developing smart grids. Voltage control and reactive power management (Volt/VAr) are automation techniques that can be used in distribution systems. These practices lead to benefits for the utilities such as improvement of reliability and efficiency of the system, minimization of operation and maintenance costs, amongst others. In the present dissertation a methodology for decentralized control (Volt/VAr) was developed, through the coordination and control of load tap changers (LTCs) in power transformers and capacitors banks located at the substation, as well as capacitor banks and voltage regulators scattered throughout the feeders. State Estimation was utilized, which allows the application of the Volt/VAr Control methodology in real time environment. The optimization algorithm developed in this work was implemented through simulations in a test network and in a real network which validated the proposed methodology showing the potentiality of the mathematical model. The results of the proposed method showed voltage profile improvement over the day for the network tested as well as a 7% decrease in power energy losses. These results were achieved without exceeding the number of operations per day defined for all control devices.

Submitted by Luciclea Silva (luci@ufpa.br) on 2018-07-19T17:42:08Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertacao_ avaliacaodesempenhofuncoes.pdf: 5239412 bytes, checksum: a7be25c49d350063c87bb85986bb7199 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciclea Silva (luci@ufpa.br) on 2018-07-19T17:42:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertacao_ avaliacaodesempenhofuncoes.pdf: 5239412 bytes, checksum: a7be25c49d350063c87bb85986bb7199 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-07-19T17:42:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertacao_ avaliacaodesempenhofuncoes.pdf: 5239412 bytes, checksum: a7be25c49d350063c87bb85986bb7199 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-27 / Esta dissertação aborda alguns dos principais problemas operacionais enfrentados pelos operadores de redes de distribuição devido à elevada integração de geradores fotovoltaicos (FV), tais como sobretensões e comutações excessivas de tape nos autotransformadores reguladores de tensão. Essas situações estão sendo continuamente estudadas, tendo em vista que podem causar problemas de qualidade de tensão e reparos em reguladores de tensão. O problema da sobretensão pode ser causado por uma injeção significativa de potência ativa da geração FV à rede. Paralelamente, as variações rápidas e significativas na potência ativa injetada pelo gerador FV, associadas com os transitórios de nuvens, podem resultar no aumento excessivo de comutações de tape no regulador de tensão, que podem acabar diminuindo a vida útil e aumentar a quantidade de manutenções realizadas nestes equipamentos. Neste contexto, surgiram as funções de controle Volt-Watt e Volt-Var prensentes nos inversores FV inteligentes, que foram adicionadas em estudos recentes para mitigar as sobretensões. Este trabalho mostra como as funções de controle Volt-Watt e Volt-Var mitigam os problemas de sobretensão e regulação de tensão em redes de distribuição com presença de geradores FV. Simulações de fluxo de potência de séries temporais em alimentadores simples de BT e MT com presença da geração FV foram realizadas em cenários de alta e baixa variabilidade solar. / This dissertation addresses some of the major operational problems faced by distribution system operators due to the high integration of photovoltaic (PV) generators, such as overvoltages and excessive tap counts in step voltage regulators (SVR). These situations are continually being studied, since they can cause voltage quality problems and damage in SVRs. The overvoltage problem can be caused by a significant injection of active power from the PV generation to the network. Moreover, the rapid and significant variations in PV generator active power associated with cloud transients result in an increase of voltage regulator tap counts, which can affect the useful life of device. In this context, the smart inverters Volt-Watt and Volt-Var control functions have been added in recent studies to mitigate the overvoltages. This work shows how Volt-Watt and Volt-Var control functions mitigate the overvoltage and voltage regulation problems in distribution networks with PV generation. Time series power flow simulations on LV and MV single feeders with PV solar plant have been performed in high and low solar variability scenarios.