Com o advento da geração distribuída foi permitido aos sistemas de distribuição a possibilidade de operação de forma ilhada dos sistemas interligados de grande porte. Apesar de suas vantagens, do ponto de vista técnico, ainda existe uma série de desafios que necessitam ser superados para a plena aplicação desse conceito. Um desses desafios é definido pela transição dos modos operativos dos geradores distribuídos durante o processo de ilhamento. Da forma em que é reportada na literatura, infere-se que tal transição é realizada de um modo inadequado, amplificando os transitórios observados nas grandezas do gerador distribuído - e por consequência, da rede em que o mesmo se conecta - durante o processo de ilhamento, o que não é desejável. No contexto apresentado, a principal contribuição desta pesquisa está em propor uma estrutura híbrida de controle a ser aplicada aos sistemas de excitação de geradores síncronos que operam em sistemas de distribuição que permitem a operação ilhada de determinadas porções de suas redes. A principal característica da estrutura proposta está em atenuar os transitórios das variáveis do gerador controlado durante o processo de ilhamento. Além disso, o arranjo da estrutura proposta estabelece um compromisso entre a potência reativa e a tensão terminal do gerador controlado, quando o mesmo opera em paralelo com os sistemas interligados de grande porte. Nessa condição, o sistema de controle mantém a potência reativa próxima da referência ajustada atendendo a uma faixa adequada de valores de tensão terminal. / With the advent of distributed generation, the possibility of autonomous operation regarding the bulk power systems was allowed to the distribution systems. Despite its advantages, from the technical point of view, there are lots of challenges that need to be overcome for the full application of this concept. One of these challenges is the transition of distributed generators operating modes during the islanding process. Based in the literature survey, it is inferred that transition is performed in a wrong way, which amplifies the transients in controlled generator quantities and consequently, of the network connected to it during the islanding process, which is undesirable. In this context, the main contribution of this research is the proposal of a hybrid control structure to be applied to the excitation systems of synchronous generators that operate in distribution systems whose islanded operation of determined portions of its grids is permitted. The main characteristic of the proposed structure is the attenuation of transients of the controlled generator quantities during the islanding process. Furthermore, the design of this structure provides a compromise between the generator reactive power and terminal voltage when it operates in parallel with the bulk power systems. That way, the control system maintains the reactive power close to the adjusted reference attending an appropriate range of terminal voltage values.

The ship emission already occupy the eighth position in the world biggest emitters ranking. This happens because the ship operations have a huge demand variation therefore in order to reduce the ship emissions is required an efficient operation of the generators. This work aims at integrating advanced storage systems into the operation of diesel generators. The variation of the operation point has a direct interference on the emissions and on the diesel consumption, this variation is allowed through the frequency and voltage control. The use of lithium batteries for various operation points of the generators is analyzed. The use of an energy storage system allowed the operation of the generators in a better operation point therefore there was a reduction in diesel consumption and in CO2 emissions when the diesel generators. The main result of this work could also shed light in the operation of isolated power systems equipped with advanced storage systems and diesel generators. / As emissões dos navios já ocupam a oitava posição entre os países com maior emissão no mundo. Isso pode ser explicado pelo fato de que as operações dos navios têm uma grande variação de demanda de potência, com isso a operação inteligente dos geradores a diesel é fundamental para a redução das emissões. A abordagem desenvolvida nesse trabalho integra o uso de sistemas de armazenamento avançados na operação dos geradores a diesel. A variação do ponto de operação dos geradores a diesel interfere diretamente no consumo e nas emissões, essa variação só é possível por meio do controle de frequência e tensão providos pelo sistema de armazenamento de energia. Nesse trabalho foram analisados o uso de baterias de lítio para diferentes pontos de operação do gerador a diesel. O uso das baterias possibilitou a operação dos geradores num melhor ponto de carga com isso houve uma redução das emissões e do consumo de combustível. Os resultados encontrados nesse trabalho podem ser extrapolados qualitativamente para outros sistemas de potência offshore, como plataformas de petróleo e de perfuração, que operem com sistemas de baterias avançadas e geradores a diesel.

Este trabalho descreve os métodos e os resultados encontrados a partir da implementação de métodos estáticos para análise da estabilidade de tensão em sistemas elétricos de potência. A determinação da margem de estabilidade de tensão foi feita através do cálculo do menor valor singular da matriz jacobiana associada às equações de fluxo de carga, comumente utilizado como índice estático de colapso de tensão. As não linearidades e descontinuidades relatadas nas referências estudadas e encontradas nos testes realizados, levaram-nos a propor o uso da razão entre o menor e o maior valores singulares da mesma matriz jacobiana, na expectativa de que este índice tivesse um comportamento menos instável do que o menor valor singular, o que não foi confirmado nos testes realizados. Identifica-se também as regiões do sistema elétrico mais afetadas pela instabilidade, o que é feito através da determinação da barra crítica do sistema e da classificação das barras de carga em ilhas de controle de tensão. A barra crítica é identificada através do cálculo do vetor tangente do sistema, conforme proposto nas referências citadas no trabalho. Como alternativa ao vetor tangente para a identificação da barra crítica, propôs-se usar o vetor singular à direita associado ao menor valor singular da matriz jacobiana. A comparação da capacidade de identificação da barra crítica por esses dois vetores mostrou uma clara vantagem do uso do vetor tangente. A rotina para identificação das ilhas de controle de tensão foi adaptada a partir de um método desenvolvido para a análise de coerência em barras de carga, e os resultados encontrados foram bastante satisfatórios. Os métodos implementados foram testados em diversas situações, com o objetivo de se analisar os efeitos dos modelos de carga ZIP com elevadas parcelas de impedância constante, dos limitadores de potência reativa dos geradores e da repartição do incremento da carga de potência ativa entre os geradores. / This work describes the methods and results got from the implementation of static methods for power systems voltage stability analisys. The power system voltage stability margin was predicted by the smallest load flow jacobian\'s singular value, commonly used as a prediction index to voltage stability. lt is investigated the use of ratio of the smallest single value by the biggest one as voltage colapse index, assuming that it\'s less unstable than the singular value itself, specialy near the collapse point. The results presented shown a clear advantage of using the smallest singular value instead of this singular value rate. The identification of the system\'s regions affected by the voltage drop is made by the tangent vector and by the voltage island identification method proposed on this work. Is compared the ability to identify system\'s critical bus by the tangent vector and right singular vetor of the smallest jacobian\'s singular value. In this case, tests results show the superiority of tangent vector. All the simulations presented are compared to allow the analysis of the voltage dependents load models (with high percentual of constant impedances), reactive limiters and generators load sharing efects over the smallest singular value, the rate of the smallest single value by the biggest one, voltage island classification and the critical bus identification.

This thesis is devoted to the development of new models for a recently-implemented FACTS (flexible alternating current transmission system) device, the unified power flow controller (UPFC), and the control coordination of power systems with FACTS devices in steady-state operating mode. The key objectives of the research reported in the thesis are, through online control coordination based on the models of power systems having FACTS devices, those of maximising the network operational benefit and restoring system static security following a disturbance or contingency. Based on the novel concept of interpreting the updated voltage solutions at each iteration in the Newton-Raphson (NR) power-flow analysis as dynamic variables, the thesis first develops a procedure for representing the unified power flow controllers (UPFCs) in the steady-state evaluation. Both the shunt converter and series converter control systems of a UPFC are modeled in their dynamical form with the discrete time variable replaced by the NR iterative step in the power-flow analysis. The key advantage of the model developed is that of facilitating the process of UPFC constraint resolution during the NR solution sequence. Any relative priority in control functions pre-set in the UPFC controllers is automatically represented in the power-flow formulation. Although the developed UPFC model based on the dynamic simulation of series and shunt converter controllers is flexible and general, the number of NR iterations required for convergence can be large. Therefore, the model is suitable mainly for power system planning and design studies. For online control coordination, the thesis develops the second UPFC model based on nodal voltages. The model retains all of the flexibility and generality of the dynamic simulation-based approach while the number of iterations required for solution convergence is independent of the UPFC controller dynamic responses. Drawing on the constrained optimisation based on Newton’s method together with the new UPFC model expressed in terms of nodal voltages, a systematic and general method for determining optimal reference inputs to UPFCs in steady-state operation is developed. The method is directly applicable to UPFCs operation with a high-level line optimisation control (LOC) for maximising the network operational benefit. By using a new continuation technique with adaptive parameter, the algorithm for solving the constrained optimisation problem extends substantially the region of convergence achieved with the conventional Newton’s method. Having established the foundation provided by the comprehensive models developed for representing power systems with FACTS devices including the UPFC, the research, in the second part, focuses on real-time control coordination of power system controllers, with the main purpose of restoring power system static security following a disturbance or contingency. At present, as the cost of phasor measurement units (PMUs) and wide-area communication network is on the decrease, the research proposes and develops a new secondary voltage control where voltages at all of the load nodes are directly controlled, using measured voltages.

Alternative energy resources (such as photovoltaics, fuel cells, wind turbines, micro-turbines, and internal combustion engines) and energy storage systems (such as batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels) are increasingly being connected to the utility grid, creating distributed energy resources which require the implementation of an effective distributed power management strategy. Parallel-connected power converters form a critical component in such a distributed energy resources system. This dissertation addresses small-signal modeling and analysis of parallel-connected power converter systems operating in distributed energy environments. This work focuses on DC-DC and DC-AC power converters. First, this work addresses the small-signal modeling and analysis of parallel-connected power converters in a battery/supercapacitor hybrid energy storage system. The small-signal model considers variations in the current of individual energy storage devices and the DC bus voltage as state variables, variations in the power converter duty cycles as control variables, and variations in the battery and the supercapacitor voltages and the load current as external disturbances. This dissertation proposes several different control strategies and studies the effects of variations in controller and filter parameters on system performance. Simulation studies were carried out using the Virtual Test Bed (VTB) platform under various load conditions to verify the proposed control strategies and their effect on the final states of the energy storage devices. Control strategies for single DC-AC three-phase power converters are also identified and investigated. These include a novel PV (active power and voltage) control with frequency droop control loop, PQ (active power and reactive power) control, voltage control, PQ control with frequency droop control, and PQ control with voltage and frequency droop control. Small-signal models of a three-phase power converter system with these control strategies were developed, and the impact of parameter variations on the stability of a PV controlled converter were studied. Moreover, a small-signal model of parallel-connected three-phase DC-AC power converters with individual DC power supplies and network is proposed. The simulations carried out in stand-alone and grid-connected modes verify the combined control strategies that were developed. In addition, a detailed small-signal mathematical model that can represent the zero-sequence current dynamics in parallel-connected three-phase DC-AC power converters that share a single DC power source is presented. The effects of a variety of factors on the zero-sequence current are investigated, and a control strategy to minimize the zero-sequence current is proposed. Time-domain simulation studies verify the results. Simulations of a parallel-connected DC-AC power converter system with nonlinear load were carried out. The active power filter implemented in this system provides sharing of harmonic load between each power converter, and reduces harmonic distortion at the nonlinear load by harmonic compensation.

The focus of this research is on deriving small signal stability models for different Flexible AC Transmission Systems devices by introducing a simple systematic method that is applicable to any dynamic device. Two different small signal models for Unified Power Flow Controllers are introduced. One model is called the power control mode and the other model is the voltage control mode. The two models are compared from transient stability point of view to show the necessity of developing both models for UPFC. The thesis also shows how to derive the small signal stability model of Static Synchronous Compensator, as the shunt branch of UPFC. The small signal stability models of both devices are then validated to ensure the accuracy of the derived models. STATCOM and UPFC power control mode are validated against PSCAD. The UPFC voltage control mode is validated against nonlinear solution of system equations.

The focus of this research is on deriving small signal stability models for different Flexible AC Transmission Systems devices by introducing a simple systematic method that is applicable to any dynamic device. Two different small signal models for Unified Power Flow Controllers are introduced. One model is called the power control mode and the other model is the voltage control mode. The two models are compared from transient stability point of view to show the necessity of developing both models for UPFC. The thesis also shows how to derive the small signal stability model of Static Synchronous Compensator, as the shunt branch of UPFC. The small signal stability models of both devices are then validated to ensure the accuracy of the derived models. STATCOM and UPFC power control mode are validated against PSCAD. The UPFC voltage control mode is validated against nonlinear solution of system equations.

The purpose of the proposed research is to design a Decentralized Voltage/Stability Monitoring and Control System to counteract voltage violations and the impact of disturbances/contingencies on power system voltage stability. A decentralized voltage and stability control system is designed to coordinate the controls of the local secondary voltage control devices and necessary load shedding without requiring information about the rest of the system. The voltage/stability control can be formulated as a multi-objective optimization problem. The control objectives include, but are not limited to: minimization of system active/reactive losses; maximization of the system stability margin; and minimization of the control actions. The constraints of the optimization problem depend on the specifications of the actual system components. For the first time, margin sensitivities of the control actions are included in the control formulation. The concept of using margin sensitivity to evaluate the post-control load margin is presented as a fast and accurate way to assess potential voltage and stability control options. A system decomposition procedure is designed to define the disturbance-affected zone as an independent control subsystem. A normal constraint algorithm is adopted to identify the most suitable control solution in a shorter timeline than the typical utility voltage-control practice. Both steady-state and dynamic simulations are performed to compare the proposed system with typical utility control practices.

Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματεύεται τη μελέτη, το σχεδιασμό και την κατασκευή ενός ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα ισχύος ανύψωσης συνεχούς μεταβαλλόμενης τάσης εισόδου σε σταθερή συνεχή τάση εξόδου. Η εργασία αυτή εκπονήθηκε στο Εργαστήριο Ηλεκτρομηχανικής Μετατροπής Ενέργειας του τμήματος Ηλεκτρολόγων Μηχανικών και Τεχνολογίας Υπολογιστών της Πολυτεχνικής Σχολής του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών. Σκοπός της εργασίας είναι η κατασκευή ενός ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα συνεχούς τάσης σε συνεχή, ο οποίος θα τροφοδοτείται από ένα σύστημα ενεργειακών κυψελών και θα παρέχει σταθερή συνεχή τάση εξόδου 50V, ούτως ώστε στην συνέχεια να τροφοδοτείται ένας αντιστροφέας, ο οποίος θα οδηγεί ένα dc brushless κινητήρα. Το συγκεκριμένο σύστημα ενεργειακών κυψελών έχει μεταβαλλόμενη τάση εισόδου από 26-43Vdc και μέγιστη ισχύ 1200W. Αρχικά, παρουσιάζεται μια συνοπτική θεωρία, η οποία αναλύει την χαρακτηριστική V-I μιας ενεργειακής κυψέλης. Στην συνέχεια αναλύεται το σύστημα ενεργειακών κυψελών, το οποίο θα χρησιμοποιηθεί στην εφαρμογή μας. Στην συνέχεια, ακολουθεί η θεωρητική ανάλυση του απλού μετατροπέα ανύψωσης συνεχούς τάσης σε συνεχή αρχικά και έπειτα η θεωρητική ανάλυση του μετατροπέα ανύψωσης συνεχούς τάσης σε συνεχή με διαδοχική αγωγή τεσσάρων φάσεων, που κατασκευάστηκε για την συγκεκριμένη εφαρμογή. Ο συγκεκριμένος μετατροπέας της εφαρμογής προσομοιώθηκε στο πρόγραμμα PSpice ούτως ώστε να ελεγχθεί η συμπεριφορά του. Στο επόμενο βήμα, γίνεται αναλυτική παρουσίαση όλων των στοιχείων και κυκλωμάτων που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την κατασκευή του ηλεκτρονικού μετατροπέα. Τέλος αναλύονται τα δυο προγράμματα ελέγχου που σχεδιάστηκαν για τον έλεγχο της τάσης εξόδου στα 50V dc, το πρόγραμμα ανοικτού και κλειστού βρόγχου και παρουσιάζονται οι μετρήσεις που διεξήχθησαν στον μετατροπέα για την επιβεβαίωση και αξιολόγηση της θεωρητικής ανάλυσης. / The thesis deals with the design, study and construction of a dc/dc boost converter, having a variable input voltage and a constant output voltage. The work was conducted in the Laboratory of Electromechanical Energy Conversion, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering School of Engineering, University of Patras. The aim is to construct a dc/dc converter, which will be supplied by a fuel cell system and will provide a constant dc output voltage at 50V, in order to supply then an inverter, which will drive a dc brushless motor. In the specific fuel cells system the voltage varies from 26-43V dc and it has maximum output power 1200W. First, a small theory is presented, which analyzes the polarization curve of a fuel cell. Then we analyze the fuel cell system, which will be used in this application. Next, a theoretical analysis of the simple boost converter and then the theoretical analysis of the interleaved multi-(four) channel boost converter, which was constructed, are presented. This converter is simulated with the program PSpice, in order to check its operation. In the next step, a comprehensive presentation of all of the chips and circuits which were used for the construction of the converter is done. Finally, the two programs designed for the control of the output voltage at 50V dc, the open and close loop programs, are analyzed and the experimental measurements carried out in the converter are displayed, so as to confirm and evaluate the theoretical analysis

Ο σχεδιασμός αναλογικών κυκλωμάτων σε υψηλές συχνότητες είναι αδιαμφισβήτητα μία από τις σημαντικότερες εφαρμογές στον τομέα των ηλεκτρονικών. Οι προκλήσεις που καλείται να αντιμετωπίσει ο σχεδιαστής είναι πολλές και σημαντικές, καθώς τα κυκλώματα μικραίνουν σε μέγεθος και είναι απαραίτητο να δημιουργηθούν νέα μοντέλα περιγραφής των στοιχείων ολοκληρωμένων κυκλωμάτων. Παράλληλα, τα παρασιτικά φαινόμενα που επεισέρχονται στον σχεδιασμό των αναλογικών κυκλωμάτων δημιουργούν πολλές φορές trade – off μεταξύ των διαφόρων σχεδιαστικών απαιτήσεων που πρέπει να ικανοποιηθούν. Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διπλωματικής, επικεντρώνομαι στη μελέτη και στο σχεδιασμό ταλαντωτών ελέγχομενων από τάση (VCOs). Πιο συγκεκριμένα, μελετώ τα χαρακτηριστικά δύο κατηγοριών των ταλαντωτών αυτών : των ταλαντωτών L-C και των ταλαντωτών δακτυλίου (ring). Αρχικά δίνω μία γενική περιγραφή των ταλαντωτών και των μοντέλων περιγραφής τους. Στη συνέχεια αναλύω τις πηγές θορύβου στα ολοκληρωμένα κυκλώματα και δίνω έμφαση στη θεωρία θορύβου φάσης, παρουσιάζοντας μοντέλα περιγραφής του. Στη συνέχεια, παρουσιάζω τη σχεδίαση ταλαντωτών L – C και ring, δίνοντας και τα αποτελέσματα εξομοιώσεων. Τέλος, εκτός από τα συμπεράσματα που βγαίνουν μέσω των εξομοιώσεων, γίνεται και σύγκριση μεταξύ των δύο κατηγοριών ταλαντωτών. / The design of analog circuits operating at high frequencies is undoubtedly one of the most important applications in the field of electronics. The challenges that the designer needs to face are many and important, as the circuits become smaller and smaller and is imperative that new models need to be made that describe the operation of the transistors. Furthermore, the parasitics that are inherent in any analog design create a trade – off between several design specifications that need to be satisfied. In this work I emphasize on the study and design of voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs). More specifically, I study the characteristics of two major categories of such oscillators: L-C oscillators and ring oscillators. At start, I present a general description of oscillators and the models that describe their operation. Next, I analyze the various noise sources in analog integrated circuits and I emphasize on phase noise theory, by presenting its models. In the fourth and fifth chapter, I show the design of L – C and ring oscillators, while I give the results of the simulations. Finally, apart from the conclusion drawn from the simulations, I make a comparison between the two oscillators’ categories.