In order to achieve the UK Government’s legally bound framework of greenhouse gas reduction targets, the transport sector is undergoing drastic changes. The key action taken by the Department of Transport in addressing the issue was the introduction of Ultra-low emission vehicles (ULEV) concept. Office for Low Emission Vehicles (OLEV) was introduced to support early market for ULEV and development of efficient recharging network through Plugged-in Places programme. The massive deployment of EV charging stations across GB will have direct impact on GB power system as they require electricity supply for their operation. It is therefore deemed necessary to carry out investigations on the capacity of the network assets to handle this load and to develop policies to manage the future EV charging infrastructure efficiently. This thesis provides an overview of the EV technology introducing various technicalities behind EVs and the associated charging stations. The extended theory about interoperability between EVs and power networks is also presented. Investigation of an 11kV networked site and 66/11 kV networked area is performed to determine their potential in accommodating future EV charging infrastructure. A methodology has been proposed to carry out investigations in 11kV networked site. For analysis purpose both the real networks are modelled in detail using power system analysis software Electrical Transient Analyzer Programme (ETAP). Scottish and Southern Energy (SSE) and Northern Power Grid (NPG) are the owners of the distribution networks respectively. Collaboration with DNOs has taken place to collect the existing network data. Finally, a university based EV charging bays management policy has been proposed.

abstract: Process variations have become increasingly important for scaled technologies starting at 45nm. The increased variations are primarily due to random dopant fluctuations, line-edge roughness and oxide thickness fluctuation. These variations greatly impact all aspects of circuit performance and pose a grand challenge to future robust IC design. To improve robustness, efficient methodology is required that considers effect of variations in the design flow. Analyzing timing variability of complex circuits with HSPICE simulations is very time consuming. This thesis proposes an analytical model to predict variability in CMOS circuits that is quick and accurate. There are several analytical models to estimate nominal delay performance but very little work has been done to accurately model delay variability. The proposed model is comprehensive and estimates nominal delay and variability as a function of transistor width, load capacitance and transition time. First, models are developed for library gates and the accuracy of the models is verified with HSPICE simulations for 45nm and 32nm technology nodes. The difference between predicted and simulated σ/μ for the library gates is less than 1%. Next, the accuracy of the model for nominal delay is verified for larger circuits including ISCAS'85 benchmark circuits. The model predicted results are within 4% error of HSPICE simulated results and take a small fraction of the time, for 45nm technology. Delay variability is analyzed for various paths and it is observed that non-critical paths can become critical because of Vth variation. Variability on shortest paths show that rate of hold violations increase enormously with increasing Vth variation. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Electrical Engineering 2011

Nos últimos anos, fatores como a reestruturação do setor de energia elétrica, a necessidade de aproveitamento de diferentes fontes primárias de energia, dificuldades na construção de grandes unidades geradoras e linhas de transmissão causadas por normas de proteção ambiental têm provocado o aumento considerável do interesse por geração distribuída. O conceito de geração distribuída tornou-se muito interessante, entretanto, sua aplicação pode provocar problemas de qualidade de energia elétrica, caso sua influência não seja devidamente estudada. Neste contexto, este documento caracteriza as variações de tensão causadas pela atuação da proteção anti-ilhamento de geradores síncronos distribuídos. Este problema pode ser considerado uma nova abordagem sobre os impactos dos geradores distribuídos na qualidade da energia elétrica, visto que as causas das variações de tensão são tipicamente relacionadas às tomadas ou alívios de grandes blocos carga, partidas de motores de indução, curtos-circuitos, desligamentos de linhas etc. Para estudar o problema, inicialmente foi feito um estudo sobre normatização técnica da área com um apanhado dos guias de diversas concessionárias. Posteriormente, simulações computacionais utilizando o programa SimPowerSystems e um sistema teste foram utilizados para que análises estáticas e dinâmicas do problema fossem feitas no intuito de investigar a natureza das variações de tensão e os fatores que influenciam suas magnitudes e durações. Índices para avaliar as variações de tensão foram criados, e um método para obtenção dos mesmos foi proposto. Tal método utiliza apenas ferramentas de análise estática (fluxo de carga) para a obtenção dos índices, evitando o uso de ferramentas dinâmicas (domínio do tempo) reduzindo o custo computacional e financeiro para análise do problema. Em seguida, o mesmo foi aplicado a um sistema que simula uma rede de distribuição real propondo-se a inserção de bancos de capacitores como medida mitigatória para o problema estudado neste trabalho. / In recent years, factors such as the restructuring of the electricity sector, the necessity to use different primary energy sources as a way to diversify sources of energy, barriers in the construction of large generating units and transmission lines caused by environmental protection standards, as well as technological advances in the generation of electricity, have caused a considerable increase in the interest for distributed generation. The concept of distributed generation has become very interesting; however, its application can result in poor power quality, if its influence is not well studied. In this context, this document characterizes voltage variations caused by the action of anti-islanding protection of distributed synchronous generators. This problem can be considered a new approach on the impact of distributed generators in power quality, since the cause of voltage variations are typically related load switching, induction motors start-up, short circuits, lines disconnection, etc. To investigate the problem, initially a study was carried out on technical standardization in the area with an overview of various utilities guides. Later, computer simulations using the SimPowerSystems software and a test system were employed for static and dynamic analysis of the problem, aiming at investigating the nature of voltage variations and the main factors that influence their magnitudes and durations. Indices to assess the voltage variations were created, and a method for obtaining them was proposed. This method uses only static approach tools (power flow calculations) to obtain the indices, avoiding the use of dynamic tools (time-domain simulations) and reducing computational and financial costs to analyses the problem. The proposed method was applied to a larger system and the insertion of capacitors bank was proposed as mitigating solution for the problem studied in this work.

Nos últimos anos, fatores como a reestruturação do setor de energia elétrica, a necessidade de aproveitamento de diferentes fontes primárias de energia, dificuldades na construção de grandes unidades geradoras e linhas de transmissão causadas por normas de proteção ambiental têm provocado o aumento considerável do interesse por geração distribuída. O conceito de geração distribuída tornou-se muito interessante, entretanto, sua aplicação pode provocar problemas de qualidade de energia elétrica, caso sua influência não seja devidamente estudada. Neste contexto, este documento caracteriza as variações de tensão causadas pela atuação da proteção anti-ilhamento de geradores síncronos distribuídos. Este problema pode ser considerado uma nova abordagem sobre os impactos dos geradores distribuídos na qualidade da energia elétrica, visto que as causas das variações de tensão são tipicamente relacionadas às tomadas ou alívios de grandes blocos carga, partidas de motores de indução, curtos-circuitos, desligamentos de linhas etc. Para estudar o problema, inicialmente foi feito um estudo sobre normatização técnica da área com um apanhado dos guias de diversas concessionárias. Posteriormente, simulações computacionais utilizando o programa SimPowerSystems e um sistema teste foram utilizados para que análises estáticas e dinâmicas do problema fossem feitas no intuito de investigar a natureza das variações de tensão e os fatores que influenciam suas magnitudes e durações. Índices para avaliar as variações de tensão foram criados, e um método para obtenção dos mesmos foi proposto. Tal método utiliza apenas ferramentas de análise estática (fluxo de carga) para a obtenção dos índices, evitando o uso de ferramentas dinâmicas (domínio do tempo) reduzindo o custo computacional e financeiro para análise do problema. Em seguida, o mesmo foi aplicado a um sistema que simula uma rede de distribuição real propondo-se a inserção de bancos de capacitores como medida mitigatória para o problema estudado neste trabalho. / In recent years, factors such as the restructuring of the electricity sector, the necessity to use different primary energy sources as a way to diversify sources of energy, barriers in the construction of large generating units and transmission lines caused by environmental protection standards, as well as technological advances in the generation of electricity, have caused a considerable increase in the interest for distributed generation. The concept of distributed generation has become very interesting; however, its application can result in poor power quality, if its influence is not well studied. In this context, this document characterizes voltage variations caused by the action of anti-islanding protection of distributed synchronous generators. This problem can be considered a new approach on the impact of distributed generators in power quality, since the cause of voltage variations are typically related load switching, induction motors start-up, short circuits, lines disconnection, etc. To investigate the problem, initially a study was carried out on technical standardization in the area with an overview of various utilities guides. Later, computer simulations using the SimPowerSystems software and a test system were employed for static and dynamic analysis of the problem, aiming at investigating the nature of voltage variations and the main factors that influence their magnitudes and durations. Indices to assess the voltage variations were created, and a method for obtaining them was proposed. This method uses only static approach tools (power flow calculations) to obtain the indices, avoiding the use of dynamic tools (time-domain simulations) and reducing computational and financial costs to analyses the problem. The proposed method was applied to a larger system and the insertion of capacitors bank was proposed as mitigating solution for the problem studied in this work.

Submitted by Fernanda Ciolfi (fernanda.ciolfi@puc-campinas.edu.br) on 2016-08-11T18:46:02Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Alan Henrique Ribeiro dos Santos.pdf: 3411627 bytes, checksum: 9502463608d158f97139964de31fc083 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-11T18:46:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Alan Henrique Ribeiro dos Santos.pdf: 3411627 bytes, checksum: 9502463608d158f97139964de31fc083 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-06-24 / The increasing technological advances will allow a transformation in the electricity sector, until then, little changed since its implementation, however, this scenario has changed mainly by power generation growth through renewable matrices. The concept Smart Grid has provided significant changes mainly in the basic distribution networks with the inclusion of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), enabling monitoring and control of the grid, but effective and even allowing for the integration of Generation, Transmission and Distribution Power. The utilization of intelligent sensors and automation and control devices will also enable reduction of errors in decision making caused by human error, yet very common in the industry. The quality of electricity supply is currently topic extensively explored and of great importance to the utilities that are concerned with improving the quality of the product delivered to their consumers. This work aims to develop a sensor of long and short duration voltage variation, these are phenomena that are present in the electricity networks and affect the power supply to both industrial customers and to residential consumers, yet it is of great importance that devices intelligent be developed to integrate the distribution network for the generation of data, the main objective is to develop a low-cost sensor for identification and records of these phenomena. To communicate with the supervisory system, the sensors use a wireless telecommunications infrastructure, IEEE 802.11, based on urban Wi-Fi technology, this way the data is sent to a monitoring station reporting any faults captured by the sensors. / O crescente avan?o tecnol?gico permitir? uma transforma??o no setor el?trico, at? ent?o pouco modificado desde a sua implanta??o, no entanto, este cen?rio tem se modificado principalmente pelo crescimento da gera??o de energia atrav?s de matrizes renov?veis. O conceito Smart Grid tem propiciado grandes modifica??es principalmente nas redes de distribui??o b?sica com a inser??o de Tecnologia da Informa??o e Comunica??o (TIC), possibilitando monitoramento e controle mais efetivos da rede el?trica, e at? mesmo possibilitando a integra??o entre a Gera??o, Transmiss?o e Distribui??o de energia. A utiliza??o de sensores inteligentes e dispositivos de automa??o e controle ainda permitir? a redu??o de erros em tomadas de decis?o causadas por falhas humanas, ainda muito comuns no setor. A qualidade do fornecimento de energia el?trica ? t?pico atualmente bastante explorado e de grande import?ncia para as concession?rias que est?o preocupadas em melhorar a qualidade do produto entregue a seus consumidores. Este trabalho tem como objetivo desenvolver um sensor de varia??o de tens?o para redes de baixa tens?o utilizando redes sem fio WI-FI 802.11, estes, s?o fen?menos que est?o presentes nas redes el?tricas e afetam o fornecimento de energia tanto a consumidores industriais como a consumidores residenciais, contudo ? de grande import?ncia que dispositivos inteligentes sejam desenvolvidos de forma a integrar-se ? rede de distribui??o para a coleta de dados. O principal objetivo ? desenvolver um sensor de baixo custo para identifica??o e registros destes fen?menos. Para comunicar-se com o sistema supervis?rio, os sensores utilizar?o uma estrutura de telecomunica??es sem fio, IEEE 802.11, baseado em tecnologia Wi-Fi urbana, desta forma os dados ser?o enviados a uma Central de Monitoramento informando eventuais falhas captadas pelos sensores.

The master's thesis deals with the design and time optimization of the method designed to determine the classification of LED lamps due to their resistance to power supply fluctuations. Classification of LED lamps in the classification scale and their labelling by the classification index is the task of informing in a simple way those interested in the ability of a concrete light source to function properly, without disturbing flickering, in conditions of electromagnetic interference.

The new generation of cars are so-called Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) which has the grid connection capability. By the introduction of these vehicles, the grid issues will be connected to the private car transportation sector for the first time. The cars from the gird perspective can be considered as a regular load with certain power factor. The effects of this type of new load in distribution grid are studied in this thesis. By modelling the cars as regular load, the effects of the cars in three distinct areas in Stockholm are investigated. The car number in each area is estimated based on the population and commercial density of electricity consumption in the three areas. Afterward, the average electricity consumption by the cars in one day is distributed among 24 hours of the day with peak load in the studied year. This distribution is done by two regulated and unregulated methods. The regulated method is based on the desired pattern of electricity consumption of PHEVs by vehicle owners. On the other hand, the regulated pattern is designed based on encouragement of the car owners to consume electricity for charging their car batteries at low-power hours of day (usually midnight hours). The power system from high voltage lines in Sweden down to 11 kV substations in Stockholm simulated in PSS/E software has been used in this study. The automation program (written in Python) is run in order to get the output report (voltage variation and losses) of the load flow calculations for different hours of day by adding the required power for PHEVs both by regulated and unregulated patterns. The results show the possibility of introducing growing number of cars till year 2050 in each area with existing grid infrastructures. Moreover, the number of cars, yearly and daily electric consumption for PHEVs in pure electric mode are shown in this project and the effects of regulated electricity consumption are investigated. It is concluded that since the car number is estimated based on the population, the areas with higher residential characteristics are more problematic for integration of PHEVs from capacity point of view. Moreover, by regulating the charging pattern of PHEVs, the higher number of PHEVs can be integrated to the grid with the existing infrastructures. In addition, the losses have been decreased in regulated pattern in comparison with unregulated pattern with the same power consumption. The voltage in different substations is within the standard boundaries by adding 100 percent of PHEVs load for both regulated and unregulated patterns in all three areas.

Målet med detta arbete var att undersöka hur mikroproduktion med solceller och laddning av elbilar i våra hushåll kommer att se ut i framtiden och om elkvalitén, kapaciteten i distributionsnätet, utlösningsvillkoren och elnätsdimensioneringen i nya bostadsområden påverkas av detta. Två olika scenarier har tagits fram, där det som skiljer dem åt är hur många procent av hushållen som har elbilsladdare och solcellsproduktion. De två scenarierna jämförs sedan med hur det ser ut i dagsläget för att få en uppfattning om vad som krävs vid fram-tidens elnätsdimensioneringar. Två extremfall används där maximal produktion och minimal konsumtion sommartid jämförs med maximal konsumtion och ingen produktion vintertid. Arbetet visar att den totala effektförbrukningen ökar med procentökningen av elbilsladdare och solcellsanläggningar vilket leder till att nya bostadsområden måste dimensionernas för högre belastningsström-mar. Detta resulterar i att större transformatorer och att kablar med grövre ledarareor måste användas för att klara av den ökade belastningsströmmen. Spänningsvariationerna ökar vilket gör att acceptans-gränserna i vissa fall inte kan hållas. Vid simulering och beräkningar visade det sig att utlösningsvillkoren för alla sammankopplingspunkter och anslutningspunkter mot bostäder låg inom gränsvärdet fem sekunder samt att selektiviteten var god i de delsträckor som testades. / The goal with this work was to study how micro-production with solar cells and charging of electric cars in our households will look like in the future and whether the electricity quality, the capacity of the distribution network, the release conditions and the electricity grid dimensioning in new residential areas are affected by this. Two different scenarios have been developed, where what distinguishes them is how many percent of households have electric car chargers and solar cell production. The two scenarios are then compared with how it currently looks to get an idea of what is needed in future electricity grid dimensioning. Two extreme cases are used where maximum production and minimal consumption in summer are compared with maximum consumption and no production in winter. The work shows that the total power consumption increases with the percentage increase of electric car chargers and solar cell installations, which means that new residential areas must be dimensioned for higher load currents. This results in larger transformers and that cables with larger conductor areas must be used to cope with the increased power. The voltage variations increase, which means that the acceptance limits in some cases cannot be kept. During simulation and calculations, it was found that the triggering conditions for all inter-connection points and connection points against housing were within the limit value of five seconds and that the selectivity was good in the sub-sections that were tested.

A conexão de geradores distribuídos em sistemas de distribuição deve ser cuidadosamente avaliada para que os mesmos auxiliem efetivamente na melhoria do desempenho das redes elétricas, buscando reduzir ou eliminar eventuais situações que causem a degradação da qualidade da energia elétrica fornecida aos consumidores, entre outros aspectos. Neste contexto, existem vários trabalhos que analisam a influência da conexão de geradores distribuídos no perfil de tensão da rede elétrica, frequência, desequilíbrio de fases e distorção harmônica. No entanto, há poucos trabalhos analisando os efeitos da desconexão de geradores distribuídos na qualidade da energia fornecida aos consumidores. Uma vez operando em paralelo com a rede de distribuição, esses geradores influenciam o perfil de tensão e o comportamento dos dispositivos reguladores de tensão. Como consequência, sua desconexão pode provocar variações de tensão intensas causando danos ou mau funcionamento às cargas. A desconexão pode ser repentina ou devido à atuação da proteção anti-ilhamento, seguida dos procedimentos de religamento automático do alimentador, se houver. Visando estudar este problema, o qual tende a se tornar uma nova preocupação das concessionárias de energia elétrica, e no intuito de minimizar e/ou eliminar os possíveis efeitos negativos dessas variações de tensão, esta pesquisa propõe o desenvolvimento de um método de controle dos taps dos reguladores de tensão. Neste método, o controle dos taps foi modelado como um problema de otimização, minimizando as violações de tensão mencionadas anteriormente e também a quantidade de operações dos reguladores de tensão ao longo de um dia típico. A otimização foi solucionada com um Algoritmo Genético e os resultados obtidos indicaram que é possível minimizar as variações de tensão usando a curva de carga do sistema para planejar a operação dos reguladores de tensão. / The connection of distributed generators in an electric power system should be evaluated carefully to ensure that they effectively assist in improving the performance of electrical networks, reducing or eliminating any situations that cause degradation of the power quality of the consumers, and other issues. In this context, there are several studies that analyze the influence of generators connected to distribution systems and how they affect the frequency, cause variations in voltage magnitude, voltage unbalance and harmonic distortion. However, there are a few studies analyzing the effects that the disconnection of distributed generators induces to the power quality of consumers. Once operating in parallel with the distribution network, these generators have an effect on voltage variations and voltage regulator devices. As a result, disconnection can cause severe voltage variations causing damage or malfunction to the loads. The disconnection may be sudden or due to the action of anti-islanding protection, followed by the procedure to reconnect the substation, if it is possible. In order to study this problem, which tends to become a new power quality concern for electric utilities, and in order to minimize and / or eliminate the possible side effects of the voltage variations, this research proposes the development of a control method of voltage regulators\' taps. In this method, the control of taps was modeled as an optimization problem which aimed to minimize these voltage variations aforementioned and also the amount of voltage regulator operations over a typical day. The optimization was solved by a Genetic Algorithm and the results obtained demonstrate that it is possible to minimize the voltage variation by using the system load curve to plan the operation of voltage regulators.

Como as Variações de Tensão de Curta Duração (VTCDs) estão entre as perturbações mais difíceis de serem monitoradas, uma vez que são ocasionadas por fatores aleatórios e imprevisíveis, a monitoração do Sistema de Distribuição (SD) representa uma providência essencial para a obtenção de informações representativas para a regulamentação de novos indicadores relativos a esses distúrbios. Neste cenário, este trabalho busca garantir a completa observabilidade das VTCDs em SD, quando da incidência de qualquer tipo de curto-circuito, através da alocação ótima de medidores. Para a determinação da magnitude da tensão em cada nó do SD é utilizado o método das posições de falta, denotando assim, a influência e a propagação das VTCDs sobre a rede como um todo. Na sequência, é determinada uma matriz binária resultante que observa os afundamentos de tensão de forma simultânea para todos os tipos de faltas. Posteriormente, é proposta a redução desta matriz para diminuir o esforço computacional em SDs de grande porte. Ainda, é analisada a vulnerabilidade de cada nó do SD para estabelecer a sua posterior ponderação no processo de otimização. Os resultados revelam que a metodologia de alocação apresentada torna o processo de obtenção da solução ótima ágil e direto, pois menos execuções computacionais são necessárias para obter diferentes soluções ótimas e garantir a monitoração dos afundamentos de tensão para todos os tipos de curtos-circuitos. Além disso, pela metodologia, tem-se também a prioridade de instalação dos medidores conforme a maior observabilidade dos afundamentos de tensão, possibilitando a escolha do melhor arranjo de medidores que atenda aos limites orçamentários das distribuidoras de energia. / Short Duration Voltage Variations (SDVVs) are among the most difficult disturbances to be monitored, since they are caused by random and unpredictable factors. Hence, the Distribution System (DS) monitoring is an essential step for obtaining representative information for the regulation of new power quality indices for these disturbances. In this scenario, this work aims to ensure the entire observability of SDVVs, considering any short circuit occurrence in the DS, based on algorithm to achieve the monitors\' optimal allocation. In order to determine the voltage magnitude at each node, the fault positions method is used, showing the influence and propagation of SDVVs on the DS. Subsequently, a resulting binary matrix is determined. This matrix observes the voltage sags, simultaneously, for all fault types. Then, the downsizing of this matrix is proposed in order to reduce the computational effort in large DSs. Furthermore, the vulnerability of each DS node is analyzed to establish the relative weighting in the optimization process. The results show a faster and more direct allocation methodology to obtain the optimal solution, because fewer computational executions are needed for different optimal solutions and to ensure the voltage sags monitoring for all short circuits types. Moreover, the power quality monitor installation priority is performed according to the higher observability of the voltage sags, making it possible to choose the best arrangement of monitors that meets the budget constraints of the power utilities.