Knowledge of the convict period in New South Wales has been substantially expanded and enriched through a number of revisionist scholarly studies in the last quarter of the twentieth century. The cumulative result has been the establishment of a number of new orthodoxies. These studies have drawn on a number of analytic frameworks including feminism and cliometrics, successfully challenging the previous historiography. The rich archival sources in New South Wales have been utilised to reformulate the convict period by a number of scholars, demonstrating the complexity of life in the penal colony. Academic divisions between what are regarded as “Australian” history and “British” history have imposed their own agendas on writing about transportation. This study challenges this imposition through an examination of petitioners’ approaches to the home and colonial administrations. A lacuna in the scholarly studies has been a lack of attention to transportation’s consequences for married couples and their children. This study seeks to narrow that gap through these petitions. The findings of the study demonstrate the continuation of links between those who were transported and those who remained in Britain. It is argued that these findings have important implications for future research within Britain, and that what is disclosed by these petitions and the individuals who were involved in on-going communications cannot be restricted either to Australian or convict histories. Our knowledge of what transportation meant to individuals in the periphery as well as those in the metropole is diminished if the focus remains firmly on the settler community. Supplementary material from contemporary sources as well as the official records passing between the two administrations has been utilised and these supplementary sources suggest that there was a broad division between official publicly stated policy and practice in respect of transportees’ family circumstances. Chapter One establishes the architecture of the thesis and explains the methodology adopted. Chapter Two offers a reinterpretation of the colony’s formation in 1788 and inserts the “convict audience” of that day into the historiography . Chapter Three examines two petitioners writing from different gaols in Britain prior to their expected transportation. A resolution of the division between cliometrics and this more qualitative humanist approach is proposed. Chapter Four is a study of petitioners in Britain and a study of the process required for a reunion and reconstitution of family units in New South Wales. Chapter Five seeks to a resiting of male convicts as family members through an examination of a number of contemporary sources. Chapter Six examines the petitions raised by husbands and fathers for their wives and families to be given free passages to the colony. Chapter Seven provides case studies of three transportees and their experiences of the petitioning process. In Chapter Eight the focus broadens out from married men to examine and provide a revision of convicts’ correspondence with their relatives and friends in Britain. Such correspondence has previously provided the basis for nationalist interpretations; the revision here suggests that such interpretations are anachronistic. Chapter Nine is an extended metaphor drawing the material together to the conclusions of the study.

Between 1906 and 1924 the Conservative party only won three parliamentary elections in North-east Wales - the Denbigh Boroughs division twice in 1910 and the county seat in Flintshire in 1924. Conversely the Liberal party won all the other elections throughout the period, with the exception of Wrexham which fell to Labour in 1922 and 1923. This, however, says more about the vagaries of the British 'first past the post' electoral system than it does about the true strength of the political parties in the region. Indeed, between 1906 and 1924 the Conservative party never averaged below 39 per cent of the electorate in the constituencies it contested. Given this impressive but unrecognised electoral position, what this study set out to do was to analyse the strength of Conservatism in a region where failure was the norm. The period was chosen because it saw the last Liberal administration in this country, and marked the start of the Conservative dominance of government for much of the twentieth century. It also saw one of the biggest cultural and social upheavals in British history with the advent of the First World War, and witnessed the enfranchisement of women for the first time.The general election of 1906 returned no Conservatives for Wales. In North Wales a conference was called to examine the situation and evaluate future prospects. This led to a review of party organisation in the region, the intention being not only to attract more working class people and women, but also to lessen the autocratic domination by the landed classes. In 1910 the Conservatives won the Denbigh Boroughs constituency with a large swing against the Liberals, and came very close to winning the Flint Boroughs by-election of 1913. The period of War, 1914-1918, saw all political parties moth-balled until the end of hostilities, but during the period of Coalition Government from 1918 to 1922 in which Liberal representation went almost unchallenged in North-east Wales, the Conservatives reorganised their Constituency Associations. By 1924 the landed domination of the party had diminished significantly, and in Flintshire the Conservatives won their first seat in an industrial working class area.Underpinning this success was a long-standing popular support, which after 1906 was better organised and mobilised for the Conservative cause through a variety of loosely attached organisations, societies and clubs. The Primrose League, an organisation that had been founded in 1883 to rally Conservative support, had a very high membership in the region compared to the rest of Wales. For example, the Denbigh Primrose League had over 800 members in 1912. A network of Conservative clubs existed in the region and as early as 1905 a thriving Workingmen's Association had been founded in Wrexham. The Conservative party was also well represented in local government; in Flintshire between 1907 and 1913 it had more county councillors than the Liberal party. In addition, the upheaval of War and the attraction of socialism to the newly enfranchised masses meant that the Conservative party had to widen its appeal to those people who had acquired the vote in 1918. By recruiting women and working class members the Conservative party was able to lay the foundations for a number of parliamentary successes in North-east Wales that lasted until the 1990s. It is therefore the contention of this thesis that the Conservative party not only survived a very difficult period, but that it emerged a strengthened and invigorated force.

"Since the publication of the work of Jehu and Charlesworth the distribution and significance of the glacial deposits of the Irish Sea have remained in a somewhat confused condition." So said Professor W.D. Evans in 1964. This thesis represents an attempt to remove the confusion from one small corner of the Irish Sea basin; it is concentrated largely in North Pembrokeshire, and aims to resolve some of the stratigraphic and chronological problems concerned with the Pleistocene deposits of the region. There is a long history of research into the glaciation of North Pembrokeshire. Most of the early work was undertaken in Dewisland (the St. David's Peninsula), but in the major contributions of Jehu (1904) ond Charlesworth (1929) something was revealed of the Pleistocene history of North Pembrokeshire as a whole. Subsequent work has been greatly influenced by these two authors, and there has been no detailed field study of the area since Charlesworth. As a result, many controversies have arisen in recent years; these range from the purely stratigraphic problems of the classic tripartite drift succession and the nature of the Upper Boulder-clay to the absolute age of the Pembrokeshire drifts. Again, there is doubt concerning the number of glaciations represented in North Pembrokeshire; about the existence of the South Wales End-moraine, the pro-glacial lakes, and the so-called overflow channels of Charlesworth; and about the age and origins of the coastal features of the county. These are among the problems that this thesis attempts to answer.

Chapter 1 is purely introductory and gives a brief account of the taxonomic status of the subject of this thesis, the Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus. The main study area, Skokholm Island, Pembrokeshire is described and a general account of what is already known of the breeding biology of the Manx Shearwater is provided as a background to the more detailed studies described in the present work which was continued over five breeding seasons, 1973-1977. In Chapter 2 I demonstrate that male and female Manx Shearwaters differed in the length of their bills and tarsi but not in wing length. However most of the chapter is concerned with the weights and measurements of shearwaters, most of which were of known age but unknown sex, caught at the colony by night. In 1973 and 1974 the weight of all age groups was highest in March and then declined to a minimum in June and July. Weight increased slightly in August. It was generally true that the older a bird was, the heavier it was in any particular month, and this effect appeared to hold good until the birds were 8-10 years old. Unlike weight, bill and wing length did not alter with age. The implications of these results are discussed in the light of current hypotheses concerning the delayed onset of breeding shown by many seabirds including the Manx Shearwater. In the pre-laying period, covered by Chapter 3, both male and female Manx Shearwaters lost weight up until about two weeks before laying. Males lost weight more rapidly than females and this was related to the fact that males visited the burrow more regularly. In the two weeks prior to laying the male continued regularly to visit the burrow at night but the female was virtually absent from the colony; it appears that she may travel into the Bay of Biscay to feed during this period of absence. In the pre-laying period the weight of breeding birds was not different from the weight of birds which have bred formerly but which were not known to be breeding during the current season. However, breeding birds tended to be heavier than birds which started to breed in a future year. To test the possibility that young birds may be prevented from breeding by a shortage of burrows artificial burrows were dug, and some were occupied by young birds, probably breeding for the first time. A burrow-blocking experiment was also carried out. The possibility that competition for burrows was greater in an area of higher as opposed to lower burrow density was investigated by comparing the pre-laying attendance pattern of breeders in the two areas. No difference was found. Chapter 4 shows that the breeding success of newly-formed pairs was lower than that of established pairs, mostly because newly-formed pairs were less successful at incubation. The lower success of new pairs was not due to the new pairing per se but to the fact that such new pairs tended to include birds without previous breeding experience. Thus experienced birds may avoid the disadvantageous consequences (to breeding success) of forming a new pair if they mate with another experienced bird, and this they did. Divorce and change of breeding burrow were both more likely after a breeding failure than a success. Both the laying date and egg volume of individual female Manx Shearwaters varied little from year to year, once the first few years of breeding were passed. I am unable to reconcile this finding with Perrins' (1970) suggestion that the laying date of the female Manx Shearwater is determined by the difficulties she may encounter early in the season in building up sufficient food reserves to form the egg. Instead I propose that, although early laying would be advantageous from the point of view of chick survival (Perrins 1966), the shearwaters do not lay earlier because of the difficulties that would be encountered in successfully incubating an early egg. Evidence supporting this idea is presented. In each of the four study years the fledging weight of chicks declined as the season progressed, as described in Chapter 5. Various lines of evidence, including an egg-swapping experiment, support the view that this decline was mostly due to a deterioration of feeding conditions late in the season, rather than to a tendency for parents less proficient at rearing heavy young to breed later. It seems that date of fledging and weight at fledging may both influence the fledgling's chances of survival but I am unable to determine the relative importance of these two factors. Different pairs of shearwaters differed in their ability to feed chicks, but chick-feeding performance was not related to age or breeding experience. Chapter 6 evaluates the parameters necessary for the construction of a life table. Of the chicks which fledge from Skokholm at least 25 % survive to breed on Skokholm, whilst adult survival is about 90 %. About 20 % of those adults known to be alive and to have bred previously do not breed in any one year- The age of first breeding, currently about six, has increased over the past ten or fifteen years. Among the birds which have been ringed as chicks on Skokholm and which bred there during the study period there was a 2:1 ratio of males to females. I suggest that about half the females fledging from Skokholm settle to breed in other colonies. The body measurements (used as an indicator of sex) and abundance of Skokholm-ringed birds on nearby Skomer Island support this hypothesis. The Manx Shearwater life table is therefore constructed to take account of immigration to and emigration from the Skokholm colony. Recruitment to the breeding population and loss by mortality are roughly equal. Chapter 7 shows that the calls given by male and female Manx Shearwaters were different. The response of other shearwaters to these calls was investigated by means of playback experiments. Females recognized the calls of their male mates but I am unable to show a selective response of males to the calls of their female mates. This difference is considered to be related to the different roles of the two sexes and to be associated with the fact that most calls heard from the ground were given by males whilst most calls uttered in flight were probably given by females. There is no evidence that nestlings can recognize the calls of their parents. The value of colonial breeding is considered in the concluding Chapter 8. It seems that Manx Shearwaters in the dense Main Colony experienced a lower rate of predation, but they did not have greater reproductive success than those breeding in areas of lower burrow density elsewhere on the island. Although nesting habitat on Skokholm is not fully utilised there may be a limited supply of breeding burrows available. This would create competition for burrows which, together with competition for food, is suggested as an important influence on the breeding biology of the Manx Shearwater. There are four appendices. The first shows that birds first caught in the colony at two years old were caught earlier in the year when three years old than those which were caught for the first time at three. Similarly, birds which have been caught when two or three years old were caught earlier in the year when four years old than those birds which were caught for the first time at four. These differences in time of return to the colony appear not to be associated with sex. Appendix 2 discusses the relationship between the body size of offspring and their parents. In the Manx Shearwater it appears that about three-quarters of the phenotypic variance of body size is due to genetic causes, and may therefore be inherited. Appendix 3 describes a simple experiment designed to test the possibility that vision may be one sense used by Manx Shearwaters attempting to locate their breeding burrow. The result of the experiment was positive but more extensive tests would be required to assess the relative roles of vision and any other senses that may be employed in burrow location. Appendix 4 describes an unsuccessful visit to the Basque coast of northern Spain to assess the status of the Manx Shearwater in the south-east corner of the Bay of Biscay in the pre-laying period, late April. I tentatively suggest that it is only in exceptional circumstances that many shearwaters feed south of about 46° N.

This thesis deals with the emergence of the modern criminal process in England between 1780 and 1910 . It seeks to investigate this period from a standpoint which regards this development of the criminal process as intimately related to its internal structure and self-understanding. This is understood to occur through transformations in institutional structures produced by both the practices of the elements within it, and changes in the theoretical conceptualisation of the structure of the criminal process. The character of these developments, and the tendencies which they evince, are seen to be generally negative from the perspective of a theory of society which is intimately connected with an interest in emancipation. The relation between law, state and democracy is seen to be an essentially problematic one which does not conform to the ideas of progress, equality or liberty but to the maintenance of the survival of a social system which is seen as constantly at risk from a threatening environment of individuals whose obedience to the structure of the social order must be obtained continuously. The thesis is the result of original research which draws upon both original and secondary sources. The methodology used in writing the thesis is a combination of historical analysis and theoretical perspectives. There is a focus upon modern developments and it is hoped that the thesis will inform current debate on the future of the criminal process. The thesis is divided into four main chapters which concentrate upon particular parts of the criminal process in both their specificity and in their relation to the system and society as a whole. The first deals with the development of the institutional autonomy of the "New Police", during the nineteenth century, setting it in the context of the system of local governance. The second examines the system of prosecution describing the failure to institute a system of public prosecution and the predominance of the "New Police" as prosecutors in a system which remained private merely in form. The third deals with the position of the defendant during this process of transformation in the criminal process and presents its evolution as one which accorded with internal systemic considerations of the criminal process, and not as one which could be seen as the unfolding of the concept of freedom, equality or universality. The fourth deals with the creation of the Court of Appeal in 1907 which is seen, not as the institutional embodiment of justice, but as the product of the internal concerns of the Home Office Criminal Department with the systemic coherence and legitimacy of the criminal process.

This thesis is concerned with the special protection afforded religion in United Kingdom (UK) anti-discrimination law. Initial discussions centre on the historical and normative bases for religious liberty in the UK. These debates assess the evolution of domestic legal protection of religion and critique prevailing principles (in particular, the idea of human dignity) underpinning the variety of that protection. Attention is then focused on religious exceptions in UK anti-discrimination law and the practical extent to which they assist religious interests. It is clear that such special measures are aimed at religion as a collective; they do not enhance protection at the individual level. This deficit becomes more acute when considering the limiting effects of recent UK jurisprudence, specifically claims involving religion and discrimination across employment and the provision of goods and services. A particularly problematic trend exhibited in the case law is the courts’ approach to determining justification and proportionality in indirect discrimination. Accordingly, an argument is made for additional special protection. A duty of reasonable accommodation is proposed as a separate claim route in UK anti-discrimination law for religious individuals wishing to be excused from a rule. This is advocated in the field employment, it being noted that the field of goods and services poses challenges for the introduction of such a duty. Comparative analyses with Canada and the United States (US) expose two different models of reasonable accommodation. These are applied to high-profile UK cases featuring religion and indirect discrimination in employment, revealing how reasonable accommodation might have assessed those claims differently. It is submitted that the Canadian model provides a more sophisticated proportionality analysis than its US counterpart. This approach affords a more factually nuanced analysis in balancing the religious claim with a competing legitimate aim. It is contended that such a duty also coheres with both the theory of human dignity and the notion of equality as it features in the conceptual framework of anti-discrimination law.

A programme of field sampling was undertaken to quantify total carbon fluxes (DOC, POC, HCO3, free CO2 and CH4) from peatland catchments in Glen Dye, NE Scotland and Plynlimon, Mid-Wales. This was integrated with temporal and spatial sampling to investigate controls on contrasting concentrations and fluxes and to determine carbon sources or sinks within the stream system. Microcosms containing radiolabelled ( 14C) biofilms were also used to investigate removal of DOC from streamwater. Carbon fluxes from acidic peatlands were dominated by DOC (115-215 kg C ha-1 yr-1) and POC (8.15-97.0 kg ha -1 yr-1). In the majority of headwaters studied, DIC was exported as free CO2 (2.62-8.49 kg ha-1 yr -1). Methane-C fluxes at the outlets of catchments were <0.01 kg ha-1 yr-1. Small-scale (diurnal) temporal variations in free CO2, HCO3- and pH at the NE Scotland catchments were small compared to more productive systems; DOC showed no diurnal fluctuations. In addition, diurnal patterns were masked by marked variations in discharge. Small-scale downstream spatial changes in Brocky Burn, NE Scotland and the Upper Hafren, Mid-Wales showed that variation in climate, in particular precipitation, was also a major controlling factor on concentrations and fluxes of the different forms of carbon. However, the actual amount of carbon stored within the soils acted as an initial control on the potential DOC load within the streamwater. A peatland stream continuum linked to terrestrial carbon cycling is presented. Initially terrestrial inputs of DOC, POC, free CO2 and CH 4 dominated the upper headwaters. The soil-stream linkage was progressively reduced downstream due to autochthonous and atmospheric factors. A critical area in the peatland stream continuum occurred approximately 1 km downstream from the gaseous carbon-rich peats.

Considerable attention has been given to housing issues in the countryside over recent years. The 1980s and early 1990s have witnessed a whole host of academic publications, policy reports and media articles, with the focus predominantly on the issue of housing affordability. In many ways, the enquiry adds to this burgeoning literature on rural housing issues in conventional terms. In other ways, however, it attempts to provide a broader view of the rural housing market, by considering rural housing issues alongside wider processes of socio-economic restructuring within the Welsh countryside, and also by incorporating in the research methodology elements of housing theory developed predominantly outside the rural arena. Consideration is given to some key aspects of housing and socio-economic change within rural Wales generally and in two case study areas in particular. A detailed examination of the local housing market in each study area then follows based on a series of individual surveys and interviews. Attention is given to state intervention within the market and to the changing nature of social rented housing provision and allocation. In addition, the operations and interests of key agents involved in the supply and distribution of private housing are considered. Finally, the consumption of housing within each study area is investigated, based on a survey of 400 households. The linkages between the local housing market and population in- and out-movement, and the incidence and nature of housing need are examined, together with respondents' attitudes to further residential development and housing need within the community.

This thesis examines patterns of mortality in interwar south Wales and assesses the relative influences of various social factors in determining those patterns. Chapters on income, expenditure, housing, environment, diet and medical services describe and evaluate the material conditions of life for working-class families in the different communities of interwar south Wales. A consideration of the effects of economic depression on these material aspects of people’s lives is an integral aspect of these chapters. The impact of unemployment and poverty is assessed so as to understand their significance in the everyday lives of working-class people. In this way, the thesis addresses the shortcomings in the historiography of the ‘healthy or hungry’ nature of the interwar period by anchoring the consequences of unemployment in the realities of everyday experience. The second section of the thesis consists of demographic studies of mortality and infant mortality. Various mortality indicators are examined so as to identify patterns of mortality in the different communities of south Wales. These mortality indicators are disaggregated according to age, sex, social class, occupation and location. The specific patterns revealed by this analysis are examined in the light of the material aspects of working-class life outlined in the first section of the thesis so as to determine the social determinants of mortality and the precise effects of economic depression on patterns of mortality. This detailed and systematic examination of mortality in interwar south Wales addresses the weaknesses in the Welsh historiography that has consisted of impressionistic interpretations of the effects of economic depression on standards of health. Therefore, the thesis examines the levels and trends of mortality in interwar south Wales and considers the factors that determined them. Secondly, it assesses the extent to which the economic depression of the interwar period affected these patterns of mortality.

The most recent international legal definition of „trafficking in humans‟ is provided within Article 3 of the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, and is reproduced verbatim in Article 4 of the Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings, and almost verbatim in Article 2 of the recent Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims, 2011. This definition has taken significant and at times controversial steps in clarifying what human trafficking is in a legal sense. The definition is comprised of three elements – the „action‟, „means‟ and „purpose‟, all of which must be present in order for the activity in question to constitute human trafficking. The definition goes on to state that consent is irrelevant where any of the listed „means‟ such as force or coercion have been employed by the trafficker(s). The „lack of consent‟ element has the potential to be problematic, due to the elasticity of the notion of consent. If it is to be accepted that consent (or lack thereof) is relevant in the context of human trafficking – and therefore sexual exploitation – then this renders it difficult to determine who are, and who are not, victims of human trafficking, and leaves those who have „consented‟ in a state of limbo – they have been less than trafficked, but more than smuggled. This thesis aims to explore the nature and role of consent in the transnational trade in women for sexual exploitation, and what the ramifications of inclusion of this controversial element are for the putative victims.