Water is a vital part of our lives. When it comes to a certain state where water become scares it has a huge impact on our lives. When nations constantly face increasing population growth and globalization, water becomes even more essential, since the demand for freshwater increase whilst our water supplies decrease. It is important to explain the matter of freshwater, since freshwater is the only water that can be used for e.g. agriculture and as drinking water, which are the most important components of our lives. The issue of water scarcity is complex since most of the water in the world is shared by two or more nations; therefore it is even more important to cooperate now than ever before. Water scarcity is found all over the world, although this thesis will primarily focus on the Tigris-Euphrates region; where water conflicts are very evident since three nations (riparians) share the two rivers. In this thesis I will do a case study of the Tigris-Euphrates in order to see if there are any possibilities or obstructions for Turkey, Iraq and Syria to reach a cooperative solution to the extensive conflict. A theoretical framework which is built upon the three level negotiation theory of water politics is going to be used to bring awareness to the negotiation process. The negotiation process over the two rivers water allocation amongst the three riparians have been far from successful, therefore there is a need to revise the current issue by using the three level negotiation theory as a foundation to advocate cooperation in order to find possible resolutions.

This article reviews and contrasts two approaches that water security researchers employ to advance understanding of the complexity of water-society policy challenges. A prevailing reductionist approach seeks to represent uncertainty through calculable risk, links national GDP tightly to hydro-climatological causes, and underplays diversity and politics in society. When adopted uncritically, this approach limits policy-makers to interventions that may reproduce inequalities, and that are too rigid to deal with future changes in society and climate. A second, more integrative, approach is found to address a range of uncertainties, explicitly recognise diversity in society and the environment, incorporate water resources that are less-easily controlled, and consider adaptive approaches to move beyond conventional supply-side prescriptions. The resultant policy recommendations are diverse, inclusive, and more likely to reach the marginalised in society, though they often encounter policy-uptake obstacles. The article concludes by defining a route towards more effective water security research and policy, which stresses analysis that matches the state of knowledge possessed, an expanded research agenda, and explicitly addresses inequities.

Water resources located in more than one country are complex systems governed by customary international law embodied in a rule known as equitable and reasonable utilisation, a recent development in international law not yet been applied by an international tribunal to resolve a dispute or to allocate transboundary water resources between countries. Water scarcity on a global scale has reached critical proportions with 1.1 billion people without access to sufficient safe water for personal and domestic use; over half that number depend on transboundary watercourses that will disappear over the next century. Conflicts of use over shared water resource have the potential to escalate into armed conflict; certainty in the peaceful means to avoid and resolve disputes is needed. The thesis examines international procedural practice and jurisprudence applying equitable principles in a case study to illustrate how equitable and reasonable utilisation may be applied by an international tribunal. The survey of international practice will inform States about procedural options for dispute avoidance and resolution in disputes over the use of transboundary water resources.

The rights and obligations of States concerning their shared transboundary groundwates are not fully understood. The primary reasons for this are the complex characteristics and behaviours of groundwater, and the lack of full understanding of its interconnection with the surrounding environment. Consequently, States appear to be reluctant in concluding legally binding arrangements that specifically address this topic. This complexity is further intensified under difficult political situations, whereby the Parties sharing groundwater are unable to foresee the benefits of cooperation concerning this resource. This thesis represents an inquiry into the rules and principles governing the utilization of shared transboundary groundwater, and how cooperative frameworks can be initiated implemented, in the complex political context of the Mountain Aquifer shared between Israel and Palestine. The main objective of this thesis is to achieve an integrative mutually beneficial arrangement in the case of the Mountain Aquifer, based on lessons learnt from international law. The proposal for approaching the problem within the Palestinian-Israeli context is to progressively establish a solid basis for long-term sustainable arrangements. The progressive approach starts with a non-binding flexible arrangement that can serve the short-term need, which gradually builds up into a final legally binding arrangement based on international law.

<p>The case study was made in the area of Kiru Valley, Tanzania, in order to study the conflicts over the water in the river Dodumera, and also to understand how the villages Mawemairo, Matufa and Mapea have been affected by the construction of the IFAD irrigation scheme. The aim was to connect the conflicts in the area with a general view of how water can create such conflicts. The method used in the case study was semi-structured interviews. The results from the interviews made with farmers and officials in Kiru Valley was analysed through general theories about water conflicts and theories about governing common-pool resources, such as Ostrom’s eight principles and the theory the Tragedy of the Commons. The analysis was also made through the IFAD poverty reduction strategy programme (PRSP). The conclusion made on the basis of this analysis was that the IFAD project, in Kiru Valley, was in correlation with the PRSP and an attempt to reduce poverty in the two villages Mawemairo and Matufa. The project has been very successful and has contributed to an increase of livelihood and development in the villages. However, the scheme has also affected other villages, such as Mapea. The scheme has contributed to a decrease of water availability in the Dodumera River for Mapea. Nowadays they only rely on rain-fed irrigation. The conflicts have been affected by the scheme, not so much in the quantity of the conflicts but more in the target of the conflicts. Before the construction of the scheme the conflicts was directed at the big-scale farmers, now they are directed at the scheme. On the other hand, the scheme has helped reducing the conflicts between the farmers in Mawemairo and Matufa. There are solutions to conflicts and water scarcity, such as more efficient irrigation techniques and Ostrom’s principles on governing the common-pool resources.</p>

<p>This case study was made in Kiru Valley in the northeast Tanzania in order to study the water management to get a picture of which institutions that are involved, how conflicts are resolved, and also to see if all farmers in the area have an influence in the management. The area consists of big-scale farmers, small-scale farmers with IFAD irrigation scheme and small-scale farmers without irrigation scheme. The irrigation scheme was built in 2004 in the villages Mawemairo and Matufa. Mapea village is located downstream and has got less water after the scheme was built. The case study was conducted by semi-structured interviews with some officials at different institutions in the District, Mawemairo and Mapea and also with some farmers in Mawemairo. The results were mainly analysed with Integrated Water Resources Management approach which have been adapted by Tanzania government. Mawemairo and Matufa have established a Water Users Association (WUA) and the water management seems to work quite good for those who are members of this. But those farmers who are not members of a WUA seem to be outside of the management of the rivers in Kiru Valley. What is missing is a platform where all relevant stakeholders in Kiru Valley, like farmers, can participate in the decision-making and where conflicts can be resolved.</p>

This case study was made in Kiru Valley in the northeast Tanzania in order to study the water management to get a picture of which institutions that are involved, how conflicts are resolved, and also to see if all farmers in the area have an influence in the management. The area consists of big-scale farmers, small-scale farmers with IFAD irrigation scheme and small-scale farmers without irrigation scheme. The irrigation scheme was built in 2004 in the villages Mawemairo and Matufa. Mapea village is located downstream and has got less water after the scheme was built. The case study was conducted by semi-structured interviews with some officials at different institutions in the District, Mawemairo and Mapea and also with some farmers in Mawemairo. The results were mainly analysed with Integrated Water Resources Management approach which have been adapted by Tanzania government. Mawemairo and Matufa have established a Water Users Association (WUA) and the water management seems to work quite good for those who are members of this. But those farmers who are not members of a WUA seem to be outside of the management of the rivers in Kiru Valley. What is missing is a platform where all relevant stakeholders in Kiru Valley, like farmers, can participate in the decision-making and where conflicts can be resolved.

The case study was made in the area of Kiru Valley, Tanzania, in order to study the conflicts over the water in the river Dodumera, and also to understand how the villages Mawemairo, Matufa and Mapea have been affected by the construction of the IFAD irrigation scheme. The aim was to connect the conflicts in the area with a general view of how water can create such conflicts. The method used in the case study was semi-structured interviews. The results from the interviews made with farmers and officials in Kiru Valley was analysed through general theories about water conflicts and theories about governing common-pool resources, such as Ostrom’s eight principles and the theory the Tragedy of the Commons. The analysis was also made through the IFAD poverty reduction strategy programme (PRSP). The conclusion made on the basis of this analysis was that the IFAD project, in Kiru Valley, was in correlation with the PRSP and an attempt to reduce poverty in the two villages Mawemairo and Matufa. The project has been very successful and has contributed to an increase of livelihood and development in the villages. However, the scheme has also affected other villages, such as Mapea. The scheme has contributed to a decrease of water availability in the Dodumera River for Mapea. Nowadays they only rely on rain-fed irrigation. The conflicts have been affected by the scheme, not so much in the quantity of the conflicts but more in the target of the conflicts. Before the construction of the scheme the conflicts was directed at the big-scale farmers, now they are directed at the scheme. On the other hand, the scheme has helped reducing the conflicts between the farmers in Mawemairo and Matufa. There are solutions to conflicts and water scarcity, such as more efficient irrigation techniques and Ostrom’s principles on governing the common-pool resources.

In the Tropical Andes of Peru and adjacent lowlands, human livelihoods are exposed to strong changes in hydroclimatic and socioeconomic patterns. On the one hand, climate change impacts are particularly visible by means of glacier retreat and growth of glacier lakes. With decreasing ice masses in highly glacierized catchments, river discharge probably diminishes and its streamflow variability increases. On the other hand, growing energy demand promotes extensions of hydropower plants and thus a major need to rely on a predictable minimum discharge during the whole year. Additionally, the expansion of irrigated agriculture and population growth exert new pressures in the catchments. The antagonistic situation of successively depleting water supply and growing water demand put at risk future water availability.This study analyzes the state of the art of water supply in the Santa (Ancash, La Libertad) and Vilcanota (Cusco) river catchments. The water balance in both catchments is embedded in the framework of Integrated Water Resources Management and the new Water Resources Law. Multiple water conflicts which prevail in Peru, make visible the need for a water resources governance with pathways towards more participative, secure and sustainable water management. Intertwined and complex hydroclimatic and socioeconomic processes with high uncertainty in the Andes of Peru could be tackled with Adaptive Water Management in the future. / En los Andes Tropicales del Perú y regiones adyacentes aguas abajo, la subsistencia humana está expuesta a fuertes cambios en los patrones hidroclimáticos y socioeconómicos. Por un lado, los impactos del cambio climático son particularmente visibles a través del retroceso glaciar y crecimiento de lagunas glaciares. Conforme se va reduciendo la masa de hielo en cuencas altamente glaciadas, el caudal de río probablemente decrecerá y su variabilidad aumentará. Por otro lado, la creciente demanda de energía promueve la extensión de centrales hidroeléctricas y por ende una mayor necesidad de contar con un caudal mínimo predecible durante todo el año. Además, la expansión de la agricultura de riego y el crecimiento poblacional generan nuevas presiones en las cuencas. La situación antagonista de una oferta de agua sucesivamente menor y demanda de agua creciente pone en riesgo la futura disponibilidad de agua.Este estudio analiza el estado del arte de la oferta y demanda de agua en las cuencas de los ríos Santa (Ancash, La Libertad) y Vilcanota (Cusco). Se contextualiza el balance hídrico en ambas cuencas en el marco de la Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos y la nueva Ley de Recursos Hídricos. Múltiples conflictos por el agua que prevalecen en el Perú hacen visible la necesidad de una gobernanza de recursos hídricos con trayectorias hacia una gestión más participativa, segura y sostenible. Procesos hidroclimáticos y socioeconómicos entrelazados y complejos con alto grado de incertidumbre en los Andes del Perú, podrían abordarse mediante una Gestión Adaptativa del Agua en el futuro.